Efficacy of AD vaccine (EB101) in preventing and treating Aβ burden
We have recently designed, developed and tested a vaccine against the pathological effects of AD in mice, based on passive immunotherapy delivering Aβ1–42 in a novel immunogen-adjuvant consisting of S1P-containing liposomes, to APP/PS1 Tg mice before and after detectable AD-like neuropathological hallmarks. Quantitative analysis of amyloid burden area and density, performed in the affected brain regions such as neocortex, entorhinal cortex and hippocampus, showed a remarkable decrease in Aβ plaques, when EB101 vaccine was compared with other control treatments (Fig. 2). This finding demonstrates a key role as a regenerative-neuroprotective agent during the development and consolidation periods of AD neuropathology.
Therefore, results published by Carrera and colleagues demonstrated that EB101 vaccine significantly prevents and halts the development of AD neuropathological hallmarks in mice by inhibiting the generation of new Aβ plaques, reducing dystrophic plaque neurites and minimizing neuroinflammation (Fig. 2),12–17 while reducing notably the neuronal degeneration and thus prolonging lifespan in Tg mice, paving the way for future clinical trials. Based on our previous studies, the preventive and therapeutic effects of the EB101 vaccine in APP/PS1 mice, designed to address the pitfalls of previous preclinical vaccines, preserve the immunogenicity targeted for the reduction of Aβ burden, but avoid the massive activation of T cell-mediated immune response that potentially causes adverse inflammatory effects.
Efficacy of AD vaccine (EB101) in the immune response of APP/PS1 mouse models
The immune response of AD vaccine in Tg mice was addressed by the quantification of astrocyte activation density in the hippocampal regions. Reactive astrocytes are known to be implicated in several pathological mechanisms, such as neuroinflammation, amyloidogenesis and neuronal cell death in AD. At the end of the preventive immunization, EB101 vaccine led to a significant reduction in the density of GFAP-reactive cell clusters in the hippocampal and neocortical regions, when compared with control treatments. Transverse brain sections of AD Tg mice immunized with EB101 vaccine showed only a few scattered GFAP-reactive clusters, mainly at the outer cortical layers, contrasting with the numerous dystrophic reactive astrocytes observed in different cortical and hippocampal areas of mouse brains under control treatment (Fig. 2).
After therapeutic immunization with the EB101 vaccine, AD Tg mouse brains were histopathologically similar to those of wild-type control mice, mostly devoid of astrogliosis and reactive clusters, except for a few scattered hallmarks in the intermediate cortical layers. No astrogliosis was observed in wild-type control mice during preventive or therapeutic treatment periods.
EB101 AD vaccine immunization strategy in Tg mice
The immunotherapeutic approach has become one of the most promising ways to prevent or treat AD and related neuropathological hallmarks, based on previous results of immunization strategies in Tg mice.23 Over the past decade, the goal of achieving an effective immunity rate against Aβ by means of a range of different antigenic designs and immunomodulatory strategies has been attempted, with varying success in AD mouse model studies.24–26 However, some of these studies have demonstrated that both passive and active immunization can lead to a significant reduction in amyloid deposition density and can even prevent the decline in cognitive performance in mice.27
At present, our EB101 vaccine is one of few vaccines against AD that has demonstrated effective results in AD Tg animal models genetically affected by the related pathological hallmarks.12–17 Moreover, recent advances in the development of liposome-based immunization techniques have demonstrated effective potential in the treatment of AD.28 Based on our previous studies, using active immunotherapy to reduce Aβ plaque accumulation,12–17 here, we show a newly-developed vaccine tool kit to be applied to animal AD models in order to circumvent the previous vaccine failures in humans, due to an extensive T cell-mediated immune response.29
The present EB101 vaccine tool kit features a novel, proven formulation that generates autoimmunity against Aβ1–42, and easily associates with the phospholipid-S1P-liposomes by the hydration-rehydration method.12–17 This methodology has been used previously in other immunization studies for an efficient liposomal-protein configuration, overcoming the immune pathological response of other types of adjuvants such as Freund’s adjuvant,6,26 Quil-A and the detergent polysorbate 80 to solubilize Aβ, which are believed to induce a proinflammatory Th 1 cell response.27,29,30
Experimental studies using Aβ immunotherapy in Tg mouse models have revealed the induction of significantly high Aβ antibody levels in serum, depending on the type of vaccine adjuvant, mouse model, immunization methodology, and the level of response evoked by the adjuvant applied.31,32 These factors have been taken into consideration in the final formulation strategy for the development of a novel adjuvant-liposomal vaccine kit, in which the phospholipid-S1P-liposomes represent the pivotal structure of the lyophilized powder that provides an effective immunotherapeutic AD-related biomarker response, unlike previous vaccine formulations tested in AD-like mice. The remarkable effect of the EB101 immunization protocol, obtained in AD Tg mice after the establishment of Aβ plaques in the hippocampus/neocortex and subsequent neuropathological changes, demonstrates that the EB101 vaccine tool kit presents a dramatic potential as a future therapeutic agent to effectively reverse the progression of pathological hallmarks.12–17
The experimental results obtained, both in the preventive and therapeutic treatments, demonstrated the dual effectivity of EB101 vaccine, not only in preventing the development of AD-like pathology but also in reducing its development once established. By using the EB101 vaccine tool kit in APP/PS1 Tg mice as preventive immunization, a significant reduction in density of the Aβ plaque burden was observed in the affected regions, as well as reduced burden areas when compared with APP/PS1 mice treated with different vaccine components or PBS. Schenk and colleagues reported similar preventive immunization results in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (PDAPP) mice,6 although immunization efficiency and vaccine conformation have been improved in the present vaccine formulation.
The scientific community has accepted massive glial activation as a direct response to early development of Aβ deposits in the AD brain, representing the main key to an efficient preventive immunization.32–35 Accepting this statement, we have developed the EB101 vaccine under this hypothesis, reinforcing its effect on the prevention of the astrocyte activation process. Since the activation of astrocytes and microglia has been reported to induce the degradation of Aβ,36,37 the near-absence of Aβ-related astrocytosis in cortex and hippocampus of mice treated with EB101 vaccine confirmed the preventive effect against the development of AD-like pathology in this mouse model.12–17
Comparative Aβ antibody titers and Th1/Th2 cytokine levels have been also analyzed in previous studies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay during mouse immunization. Data have showed that preventive treatment with EB101 resulted in a marked increase of specific IgG Aβ1–42 antibody titers production,12–15 between 1:2,000 and 1:8,000, while the control group showed three and four times lower serum titer level (p < 0.01). The effect of EB101 vaccine on Th1 and Th2 cytokines was also studied.12–15 The EB101-treated group showed a tendency to Th1 secretion reduction, with respect to the control group, in both preventive and therapeutic treatments. The changes in Th2 protein levels followed the inverse trend, where the highest differences between the EB101-treated group and the control group were observed in the interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-10 cytokine secretions (p < 0.05). The data indicates that EB101 vaccine resulted in an effective immunological response in AD mice models, including the induction of a Th2 cell response, which effectively prevented neuroinflammation.
These studies have provided further evidence to demonstrate that the EB101 vaccine tool kit (Fig. 3) is a reliable immunization agent in animal models used in AD research. However, the mechanism by which passive immunization blocks AD hallmarks is not yet well understood.38,39 One possibility is that the antibodies neutralize Aβ in some restricted compartment or deplete the soluble form of Aβ responsible for the pathological degeneration observed in the brain.40 In recent studies, soluble Aβ forms have been proposed as the cause of synapse loss in APP Tg mice.41 A second possibility is the clearance effect of Aβ deposits exerted by microglia, activated by immunizations.42 Based on our previous reports,12–17 the absence of adverse effects on behavior and brain functioning, and the neuroprotection in the affected area by the EB101 vaccine, we strongly recommend trying this AD vaccine tool kit for the treatment and prevention of AD in different animal models.