Home
JournalsCollections
For Authors For Reviewers For Editorial Board Members
Article Processing Charges Open Access
Ethics Advertising Policy
Editorial Policy Resource Center
Company Information Contact Us
OPEN ACCESS

Post-infantile Giant Cell Hepatitis: A Literature Review and Meta-analysis

  • Jingjing Jiao and
  • Xuchen Zhang* 
Journal of Clinical and Translational Pathology   2022;2(3):100-107

doi: 10.14218/JCTP.2022.00016

Received:

Revised:

Accepted:

Published online:

 Author information

Citation: Jiao J, Zhang X. Post-infantile Giant Cell Hepatitis: A Literature Review and Meta-analysis. J Clin Transl Pathol. 2022;2(3):100-107. doi: 10.14218/JCTP.2022.00016.

Abstract

Post-infantile giant cell hepatitis (PIGCH) is a rare disease entity in adults with a multifactorial etiology and widely variable clinical courses and outcomes. The factors associated with the worse outcomes of this disease entity are still unclear. We identified 68 PIGCH patients by searching PubMed and performed meta-analysis. Among the 68 patients, 32% of the cases were associated with autoimmune disorders, followed by 21% associated with viral infections, 10% with medication, and 7% with malignancy. Twenty-four percent of the patients had more than one etiological factor, and 6% had other uncommon etiologies or an etiology that could not be identified. At the time of this report, 17 patients had died of the disease (poor outcome), and 51 patients remained alive with the disease (good outcome). Compared to the patients with a good outcome, the patients with a poor outcome were characterized by older age, lower levels of platelets and albumin, higher level of total bilirubin, and a diffuse distribution pattern of giant cells in the liver. There were no differences in gender distribution, aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, etiological distribution, or other histological features, including interface hepatitis, necrosis, lobular inflammation, portal inflammation, cholestasis, or fibrosis. Further studies would be needed to better understand the disease mechanisms and unmask any additional etiological factors and targeted therapies.

Keywords

Post-infantile giant cell hepatitis, Syncytial giant cell hepatitis, Autoimmune hepatitis, Liver transplantation, Virus

Introduction

Neonatal giant cell hepatitis is a common cause of cholestasis in infants. It is characterized histologically by the formation of syncytial hepatic giant cells (hepatocytes with abundant cytoplasm and more than three nuclei)1 and hepatitis (lobular disarray, lobular inflammation, Kupffer cell hypertrophy, and hepatocyte spotty necrosis).2 Etiologies related to neonatal giant cell hepatitis include hypopituitarism, biliary atresia, Alagille syndrome, bile salt defects, and severe hemolytic disease of the newborn. However, a significant number of neonatal giant cell hepatitis remains idiopathic.3,4 When the disease entity occurs in adults, it is an extremely rare condition known as post-infantile giant cell hepatitis (PIGCH), or syncytial giant cell hepatitis. Due to the differences in the hepatocyte maturity of the metabolic enzyme systems,5 regenerative activity,6 and the spectrum of background liver diseases, giant cell hepatitis in adults is considered a separate disease entity. The clinical course of PIGCH is widely variable ranging from minimal symptoms without major clinical implications to cirrhosis or to liver failure that is often fatal despite standard clinical care. Here we identified 68 cases in the literature and tried to characterize the clinical, laboratory, and histological features by meta-analysis to identify the factors associated with a poor outcome.

Materials and methods

Case identification and selection

We conducted a comprehensive literature search in PubMed in January 2022, using the terms “giant cell hepatitis”, “giant cell change” AND “liver”, and “giant cell transformation” AND “liver”. Only original articles were retrieved and reviewed. A case was selected and included in this study if: (1) The patient’s age at the disease onset was older than or equal to 18 years, (2) the article had information of clinical, laboratory, histology, and disease outcomes, and (3) the article was published in a peer-reviewed journal in English. The excluded criteria included: (1) Important information was missing, (2) no full text was available, and (3) irrelevant articles.

Data extraction

The following data were extracted from the original articles or pathological descriptions, if available: title, journal information, country/region of the corresponding author, age, gender, clinical symptoms and signs, laboratory results, histology, outcome, and length of the follow-up. All of the case entries were assessed by author JJ. The study flow diagram is shown in Figure 1. The meta-analysis was in compliance with the PRISMA guidelines, and a total of 68 patients qualified and were included in this series.

The selection process of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis.
Fig. 1  The selection process of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis.

Statistical analysis

Demographic and clinical parameters were compared between the deceased and living patients at the time of the report using two-tailed student’s t-tests for continuous variables, and Fisher exact or chi-squared tests for the categorical variables as indicated. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Clinical, laboratory and histological features

Among the 68 patients, the distribution of the patients’ age ranged from 18 to 79 years with a median of 41.5 years. The ratio of male to female was 1.3:1 (male 57.4%; female 42.6%). Of the cases, 44.1% were from Europe, 33.8% were from America, and 22.1% were from Asia. The leading symptoms/signs were jaundice (n = 44), followed by fatigue (n = 29), hepatomegaly (n = 22), abdominal pain/tenderness (n = 14), and splenomegaly (n = 14).

All the patients with liver functional test data had elevated aminotransferase. The median levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were 500 U/L and 466.5 U/L with a range of 40–5,350 U/L and 39–5,609 U/L, respectively. 91.1% of the patients had elevated total bilirubin with a median value of 10.6 mg/dL (range: 0.7–42 mg/dL). The median level of albumin was 3.0 g/dL (range: 2.2–4.1 g/dL). The percentage of patients with positive antinuclear antibodies, anti-smooth muscle antibodies, and anti-mitochondrial antibodies was 60%, 38.6%, and 20.5%, respectively.

The distribution pattern of the multinucleated giant cells in the liver was specified in 27 PIGCH patients with eight cases predominantly at Zone 1, one at Zone 2, eight at Zone 3, eight with a diffuse distribution pattern, one at both Zones 2 and 3, and one case with a “no preference” pattern. Those giant cells could contain up to 30 nuclei7 with an abundant and eosinophilic cytoplasm, which could contain eosinophilic granules, Mallory-Denk bodies, brown granules, and/or bile pigment (Figs. 2a, b).8–15 Acidophilic degeneration9 and giant cell necrosis were sometimes observed with the neutrophilic reaction as well.12,16,17 Among the 51 cases with information of fibrosis in the liver histology, seven had no fibrosis and 44 had a different degree of fibrosis, among which 11 reached cirrhosis. Portal inflammation and lobular inflammation were mentioned in 34 and 19 cases, respectively. Thirty-seven cases had a variable amount of necrosis. Interface hepatitis was present in 21 cases, and 24 cases had histological features of cholestasis. Ductular reaction (n = 8), ballooning (n = 7), steatosis (n = 5), Councilman (acidophilic) body (n = 4), Mallory-Denk body (n = 3), and Kupffer cell hyperplasia (n = 3) were features infrequently encountered.

Representative images of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis.
Fig. 2  Representative images of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis.

(a) Giant cell hepatitis in a liver with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. (b) Giant cell hepatitis in a liver with autoimmune hepatitis. (Hematoxylin and eosin stain, original magnification 200×).

Distribution of the etiology

With regard to the etiological factors, 32% of the cases were associated with autoimmune disorders, 21% were associated with viral infections, 10% were associated with medication (including herbal products or dietary supplement intake), 7% were associated with malignancy, 24% had more than one etiological factor, and 6% had other uncommon etiologies or an etiology that could not be identified at the time of publication (Fig. 3).

Frequency of the etiologies of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis.
Fig. 3  Frequency of the etiologies of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis.

Among the autoimmune disorders associated with PIGCH, autoimmune liver diseases were the most common, including autoimmune hepatitis (type I or II),12,18–30 primary sclerosing cholangitis,7,31 and primary biliary cholangitis.10 Other autoimmune conditions included systemic lupus erythematosus,32,33 Graves’ disease,34 undifferentiated connective tissue disease,35 and polyarteritis nodosa.20 Some cases of PIGCH had features of autoimmune disorders (e.g., elevated autoantibodies) and improved after immunosuppressive therapy without having a specific autoimmune disease diagnosed.11,36

Viruses associated with PIGCH included hepatitis C (HCV),15,16,29,37–39 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),16,28,39 human herpes virus-6 (HHV-6),40 cytomegalovirus (CMV),14,41,42 Epstein-Barr virus (EBV),43,44 herpes simplex virus (HSV),29 paramyxoviruses,8,33,43,45 hepatitis A,38,46,47 hepatitis B,38 and hepatitis E.48,49

In addition to medications, such as clometacin,50 diclofenac,51 doxycycline,11,17 amoxicillin/clavulanate,12 dehydrocholic acid,11 and testosterone analogue,52 herbal remedies,53–55 and dietary supplements56 were also reported to have an association with PIGCH. The most commonly associated malignancy with PIGCH appeared to be chronic lymphocyte leukemia (CLL).37,43,44,51,57–62 In addition, other malignancies seen in patients with PIGCH included Hodgkin’s lymphoma, papillary thyroid carcinoma,63 anaplastic carcinoma,58 and primary myelofibrosis.51

Some patients had more than one etiology, including autoimmune disorder and a viral infection,28,29,33 autoimmune disorder and medication,11 CLL with autoimmune hemolytic anemia, and CLL with a viral infection. Singh et al. reported a case of PIGCH developed in a patient with autoimmune hepatitis in the setting of acute bacterial infection and recent use of hepatotoxic medications amoxicillin/clavulanate.12 Another case of PIGCH developed in a patient with myelofibrosis and severe autoimmune hepatitis, which was probably triggered by diclofenac administration.51

Other rare conditions, which had been seen concomitantly with PIGCH, included Rosai-Dorfman disease,64 necrobiotic xanthogranulomatous disease,65,66 and hypereosinophilia.67 There were still, however, cases without any underlying process that could be identified despite an extensive workup.68,69

Clinical, laboratory, and histological features associated with the worse outcome

Seventeen patients had already passed away at the time of the report, 13 of these died of the deterioration of liver disease, while four died of non-liver related etiology (e.g., complications of CLL,37 brain hemorrhage,20 and pneumonia7,33). Fifty-one patients were alive at the time of the report, among whom 40 had significant improvement, seven had disease progression and survived after transplantation, and four patients had stable disease. Most of the improvements were based on clinical and/or biochemical improvements. The reduction or elimination of giant cells,11,16,18,19,32,33,40 decreased inflammation,23,33 or even regression of fibrosis26 was documented to a less extent.

We compared the clinical, laboratory, and histological features of the PIGCH patients with a poor (deceased) versus good (living) outcome. Patients with a poor outcome had a significantly lower platelet count (median value: 126 × 109/L vs 207 × 109/L; p = 0.04), lower albumin concentration (median value: 2.7 g/dL vs 3.1 g/dL; p = 0.012), higher total bilirubin levels (median value: 18.0 mg/dL vs 8.4 mg/dL; p = 0.022) and were more likely to have a diffuse distribution pattern of giant cells (80% vs 18.2%; p = 0.017) than those of patients with a good outcome. There was also a trend of older age (median value: 60 vs 39 years; p = 0.067) and lower total protein level (5.5 g/dL vs 6.8 g/dL; p = 0.056) without reaching statistical significance. There were no differences in gender distribution, other liver function tests (aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase), etiological distribution, or other histological features (interface hepatitis, necrosis, lobular inflammation, portal inflammation, cholestasis, or fibrosis) between the two groups. The detailed comparison is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

Comparison of the deceased versus living PIGCH patients in the clinical, laboratory, and histological parameters

Deceased (n = 17)Living (n = 51)p
Age (n = 68)60.0 (25–76)39.0 (18–79)0.067
Gender (n = 68)0.779
  male9 (52.9%)30 (58.8%)
  female8 (47.1%)21 (41.2%)
Region (n = 68)0.568
  America4 (23.5%)19 (37.3%)
  Europe9 (52.9%)21 (41.2%)
  Asia4 (23.5%)11 (21.6%)
Hg (g/dL) (n = 17)11.1 (4.8–12)11.8 (8.4–14)0.209
WBC(x109/L) (n = 20)9.8 (2.4–35)12.8 (2.61–237.8)0.135
Plt (x109/L) (n = 20)126.0 (73–200)207.0 (75–611)0.040
IgG (g/L) (n = 30)26.9 (17.6–38.76)23.2 (4.93–47.1)0.543
  Elevated IgG7 (100.0%)16 (69.6%)0.154
AST (U/L) (n = 61)406.0 (56–2,385)529.0 (40–5,350)0.551
ALT (U/L) (n = 66)216.0 (39–5,609)469.0 (55–4,670)0.934
ALP (U/L) (n = 49)266.0 (47–727)231.0 (57–828)0.795
GGT (U/L) (n = 29)159.5 (10–320)190.0 (22–1,500)0.218
TB (mg/dl) (n = 56)18.0 (1–42)8.4 (0.7–33.6)0.022
  Elevated TB14 (93.3%)37 (90.2%)>0.9999
DB (mg/dl) (n = 26)13.5 (1.92–34.4)9.0 (2–21.4)0.430
   Elevated DB11 (100.0%)15 (100.0%)>0.9999
INR (n = 19)1.6 (1.1–2.32)1.5 (0.9–6.2)0.668
Albumin (g/dL) (n = 25)2.7 (2.2–3.3)3.1 (2.4–4.1)0.012
Total protein (g/dL) (n = 16)5.6 (4.5–7)6.8 (5.4–10)0.056
Positive ANA (n = 55)8/14 (57.1%)25/41 (61.0%)0.758
Positive SMA (n = 44)5/10 (50.0%)12/34 (35.3%)0.473
Positive AMA (n = 39)2/11 (18.2%)6/28 (21.4%)>0.9999
Etiology (n = 68)0.923
  Autoimmune5 (29.4%)17 (33.3%)
  Viral5 (29.4%)9 (17.6%)
  Medication1 (5.9%)6 (11.8%)
  Malignancy1 (5.9%)4 (7.8%)
  Combined etiologies4 (23.5%)12 (23.5%)
  Others1 (5.9%)3 (5.9%)
Histology
  Interface hepatitis (n = 24)6/6 (100.0%)15/18 (83.3%)0.546
  Necrosis (n = 39)11/11 (100.0%)26/28 (92.9%)>0.9999
  Lobular inflammation(n = 20)5/5 (100.0%)14/15 (93.3%)>0.9999
  Portal inflammation (n = 34)10/10 (100.0%)24/24 (100.0%)>0.9999
  Cholestasis (n = 27)10/11 (90.9%)14/16 (87.5%)>0.9999
  Steatosis (n = 9)2/3 (66.7%)3/6 (50.0%)>0.9999
  Fibrosis (n = 51)13/15 (86.7%)31/36 (86.1%)>0.9999
  Cirrhosis (n = 51)4/15 (26.7%)7/36 (19.4%)0.711
  Distribution of giant cells (n = 27)0.017
    Diffuse4/5 (80.0%)4/22 (18.2%)

Discussion

PIGCH is a very rare disease entity in adults with an estimated incidence ranging from 0.1% to 0.25%47,70 and a multifactorial etiology. Consistent with previous reports,1,70 autoimmune conditions, especially autoimmune liver diseases, remained the most common etiology. Many viruses, such as HCV, HIV, HHV-6, CMV, EBV, HSV, and paramyxoviruses were reported to be associated with PIGCH.71 The most detailed studies were about HHV-6 and paramyxovirus. The association of HHV-6 with PIGCH was described in a liver transplantation recipient, who had a latent infection of an HHV-6B variant while receiving a liver from a donor with a latent infection of an HHV-6A variant, and developed PIGCH. HHV-6A (but not HHV-6B) was detected in the plasma, the affected liver tissue, and the syncytial giant cells, but the virus disappeared at the resolution of syncytial giant cell hepatitis.40 In addition, HHV-6 was reported to induce giant cell formation in bile ductular and gastroduodenal epithelium.72 The association of PIGCH with paramyxovirus was reported by finding intracytoplasmic paramyxoviral nucleocapsids by electron microscopy.8 Although paramyxovirus and a paramyxovirus-like virus associated with PIGCH were also reported by other groups,33,45 this theory was challenged73,74 since the virus-like particles were possibly a microtubular aggregate75 or endoplasmic reticulum in injured and/or stimulated cells.76

Multinucleated hepatocytes were also described in patients treated with certain medications or exposed to certain chemicals, including para-aminosalicylic acid,77 methotrexate,78 6-mercaptopurine,79 chlorpromazine,80 and vinyl chloride.81 The list kept expanding with microdantin, ranitidine, omeprazole, moxifloxacin, plaquenil, and chromium picolinate being recently added.70 These agents do not seem to be related to any chemical structures, but many of them are recognized as “nuclear poisons” by interrupting the DNA and RNA synthesis, proliferation, and mitosis. Furthermore, although these agents were initially considered “natural” and safe, herbal remedies53–55 and dietary supplements56 associated with giant cell hepatitis have been reported. Notably, herbal remedies/dietary supplements as the cause for PIGCH might have been underestimated due to the fact that patients might not have reported their consumption on the conventional history taking.

The most commonly associated malignancy with PIGCH appears to be CLL. PIGCH can develop not only in advanced, pretreated patients,37,59 but also in patients with a relatively indolent course.60,61 Patients with CLL have a 5–10% risk of developing autoimmune complications.62 The most common of them is autoimmune hemolytic anemia.57 CLL patients also have profound immune defects, thus rendering them susceptible to infections (e.g., EBV and a paramyxoviridae-like virus). Additionally, the concurrent presence of the autoimmune conditions, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia,61 EBV,43,44 and paramyxoviridae-like viruses,43,45 have all been reported in PIGCH cases associated with CLL. However, PIGCH can also occur in patients with CLL in the absence of an autoimmunity disorder and viral infection.60

There are two possible mechanisms in the formation of giant hepatocytes: the failure of the cytoplasm to divide at the time of nuclear division and the fusion of individual cells to form a syncytium. As shown by an electron microscope study, in contrast to the normal-sized hepatocytes that have ultrastructural signs of necrosis, giant multinucleated hepatocytes from a PIGCH case due to clometacin administration did not show any ultrastructural abnormality. Instead, they had the appearance of active cells with abundant endoplasmic reticulum and numerous mitochondria, thus indicating that giant multinucleated hepatocytes were regenerative rather than degenerative cells, and the formation of giant multinucleated hepatocytes was due to nuclear division without cytoplasmic division.50 However, in PIGCH associated with HCV, CLL,37 and autoimmune hepatitis,23 giant cells were strongly positive for keratin 8/18 (mature hepatocyte marker) and cyclin D1 (G1 phase marker),37 and negative for Ki-67 (proliferation marker) and keratin 19/keratin 7 (intermediate hepatocyte makers),23 hence indicating that nuclear division was a less likely explanation for the giant cell formation. On the other hand, the identification of intracellular plasma membrane remnants in the giant multinucleated hepatocytes indicated that the fusion of hepatocytes was a more likely mechanism for giant cell formation.10 Therefore, further studies would be needed to clarify the exact mechanism of the giant cell formation.

There is still no consensus on the management of PIGCH. The treatment is typically dictated by the underlying condition. For cases associated with autoimmune etiology, treatment is usually composed of corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, such as azathioprine,20–22,24,25,30 mycophenolate mofetil,35,82 cyclosporine,33 and cyclophosphamide.11 Ursodeoxycholic acid has also been used either as a single agent or in combination with corticosteroids and other immunosuppressants as a therapy to reduce cholestasis.7,10,24,31 Antiviral therapy is used in PIGCH cases associated with viral infections, e.g., acyclovir43 or ribavirin63 for paramyxoviral-related infections, interferon and ribavirin for HCV infections,16,39 ganciclovir for HHV-6,40 highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for HIV infections,28 and penicillin for syphilis infections.52 In cases related to CLL, treatment usually includes a combination of immunosuppression (e.g., corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide, and azathioprine) and CLL directed therapy (anti-CD20 antibody, chemotherapy and/or ibrutinib).59–61 For patients with rapid progression and a fatal process, liver transplantation is the last resort.

Our analysis was the first to comprehensively characterize the clinical, laboratory, and histological features associated with the outcome of PIGCH. In contrast to previous studies indicating that the prognosis of PIGCH was dictated by the underlying etiology,22,47 we did not find any differences between the etiological composition between the patients with a poor or good outcome. Instead, the patients with a poor outcome were characterized by older age, lower levels of platelets and albumin, higher level of total bilirubin, and diffuse distribution pattern of giant cells in the liver.

Nevertheless, there are still unanswered questions about PIGCH. One enigmatic issue is the recurrence after liver transplantation. In cases of rapid progression to liver failure, liver transplantation was used as a rescue treatment. However, the transplant was still burdened by the risk of the recurrence of disease. The recurrence of giant cell hepatitis after one63 or two liver transplantations83 were documented. In some patients, no etiology could be identified.83–85 Interestingly, Shah et al. reported a patient receiving a liver transplantation for giant cell hepatitis at the age of 10 months. Following the transplantation, the patient did well on a maintenance regimen of prednisone, azathioprine, and cyclosporine until aged 18 years when the patient developed recurrent giant cell hepatitis that was then successfully treated with ribavirin.86 It was hypothesized that the recurrence of the disease after transplantation was due to a viral etiology located in the extrahepatic sites.63 Ribavirin has since demonstrated to be successful in treating recurrent diseases leading to normalization of the liver enzyme,86 reduced inflammation and number of giant cells,84 and even normalized liver histology63 in some cases. Nonetheless, this regimen was not always successful.83 Next-generation sequencing (NGS) based metagenomics has been successfully used to detect novel and rare infections87 and may open a new chapter in identifying viral etiologies associated with PIGCH.

The limitations of our meta-analysis included the quality of the case report and possible publication bias. For example, the detailed histological description was not always provided in the case reports. The distribution pattern of giant cells was mentioned in only 27 patients. Moreover, only 36 patients had follow-up data. Regarding publication bias, the cases of PIGCH without a clear etiology identified might be underestimated due to the fact that cases without a clear etiology might not have been reported in the publication. Thus, caution should be used when interpreting and applying the related findings.

Conclusions

PIGCH is a rare, heterogenous disease entity with a variable clinical course and prognosis. Poor outcome was associated with old age, low levels of platelets and albumin, high level of total bilirubin, and diffuse distribution pattern of giant cells in the liver. Further studies would be needed to better understand the disease mechanisms and unmask any additional etiological factors and targeted therapies.

Abbreviations

ALT: 

alanine aminotransferase

ALP: 

alkaline phosphatase

AST: 

aspartate aminotransferase

CLL: 

chronic lymphocyte leukemia

EBV: 

Epstein-Barr virus

HCV: 

hepatitis C virus

HHV-6: 

human herpes virus-6

PIGCH: 

post-infantile giant cell hepatitis

Declarations

Acknowledgement

The authors thank Hannah Wang for the language editing and proofreading of this article.

Data sharing statement

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Funding

This work was supported in part by the NIH research grant from the National Institutes of Health (P30CA016359).

Conflict of interest

Zhang X has been an editorial board member of the Journal of Clinical and Translational Pathology since May 2021.The authors have no other conflicts of interest to disclose.

Authors’ contributions

Jiao J reviewed the literature and drafted the manuscript; Zhang X provided the overall intellectual input, reviewed the literature, and edited the manuscript; all authors approved the final version to be published.

References

  1. Devaney K, Goodman ZD, Ishak KG. Postinfantile giant-cell transformation in hepatitis. Hepatology 1992;16(2):327-333 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  2. Olave-Martinez M, Celli R, Zhang X. Liver with nonspecific/minimal histologic findings. Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2020:59-107 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  3. Wu H, Tugal O, Perez-Atayde AR. Hemolysis in Early Infancy: Still a Cause of Cholestatic Neonatal Giant Cell Hepatitis. Am J Surg Pathol 2022;46(6):801-808 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  4. Torbenson M, Hart J, Westerhoff M, Azzam RK, Elgendi A, Mziray-Andrew HC, et al. Neonatal giant cell hepatitis: histological and etiological findings. Am J Surg Pathol 2010;34(10):1498-1503 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  5. Fernandez E, Perez R, Hernandez A, Tejada P, Arteta M, Ramos JT. Factors and Mechanisms for Pharmacokinetic Differences between Pediatric Population and Adults. Pharmaceutics 2011;3(1):53-72 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  6. Tolosa L, Pareja-Ibars E, Donato MT, Cortes M, Lopez S, Jimenez N, et al. Neonatal livers: a source for the isolation of good-performing hepatocytes for cell transplantation. Cell Transplant 2014;23(10):1229-1242 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  7. Protzer U, Dienes HP, Bianchi L, Lohse AW, Helmreich-Becker I, Gerken G, et al. Post-infantile giant cell hepatitis in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and autoimmune hepatitis. Liver 1996;16(4):274-282 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  8. Phillips MJ, Blendis LM, Poucell S, offterson J, Petric M, Roberts E, et al. Syncytial giant-cell hepatitis. Sporadic hepatitis with distinctive pathological features, a severe clinical course, and paramyxoviral features. N Engl J Med 1991;324(7):455-460 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  9. Liu JJ, Piper JK, Glickman JN, Farraye FA. Successful treatment of giant cell hepatitis with Rebetron (interferon/ribavirin). Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98(1):223-224 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  10. Watanabe N, Takashimizu S, Shiraishi K, Kagawa T, Nishizaki Y, Mine T, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis with multinucleated hepatocellular giant cells: implications for pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;18(9):1023-1027 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  11. Richey J, Rogers S, Van Thiel DH, Lester R. Giant multinucleated hepatocytes in an adult with chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1977;73(3):570-574 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  12. Singh V, Rudraraju M, Carey EJ, Byrne TJ, Douglas DD, Rakela J, et al. An unusual occurrence of giant cell hepatitis. Liver Transpl 2009;15(12):1888-1890 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  13. Thijs JC, Bosma A, Henzen-Logmans SC, Meuwissen SG. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis in a patient with multiple autoimmune features. Am J Gastroenterol 1985;80(4):294-297 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  14. Welte S, Gagesch M, Weber A, Longerich T, Millonig G. Fulminant liver failure in Wilson’s disease with histologic features of postinfantile giant cell hepatitis; cytomegalovirus as the trigger for both?. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;24(3):328-331 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  15. Gabor L, Pal K, Zsuzsa S. Giant cell hepatitis in adults. Pathol Oncol Res 1997;3(3):215-218 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  16. Moreno A, Moreno A, Perez-Elias MJ, Quereda C, Fernandez-Munoz R, Antela A, et al. Syncytial giant cell hepatitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C: 2 cases and review of the literature. Hum Pathol 2006;37(10):1344-1349 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  17. Hartl J, Buettner R, Rockmann F, Farkas S, Holstege A, Vogel C, et al. Giant cell hepatitis: an unusual cause of fulminant liver failure. Z Gastroenterol 2010;48(11):1293-1296 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  18. Ben-Ari Z, Broida E, Monselise Y, Kazatsker A, Baruch J, Pappo O, et al. Syncytial giant-cell hepatitis due to autoimmune hepatitis type II (LKM1+) presenting as subfulminant hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95(3):799-801 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  19. Labowitz J, Finklestein S, Rabinovitz M. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis complicating ulcerative colitis: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Gastroenterol 2001;96(4):1274-1277 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  20. Koskinas J, Deutsch M, Papaioannou C, Kafiri G, Hadziyannis S. Post-infantile giant cell hepatitis associated with autoimmune hepatitis and polyarteritis nodosa. Scand J Gastroenterol 2002;37(1):120-123 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  21. Anagnostopoulos GK, Margantinis G, Tsiakos S, Kostopoulos P, Grigoriadis K, Arvanitidis D. Postinfantile giant-cell hepatitis associated with ulcerative colitis and autoimmune hepatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;21(12):1863-1864 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  22. Estradas J, Pascual-Ramos V, Martinez B, Uribe M, Torre A. Autoimmune hepatitis with giant-cell transformation. Ann Hepatol 2009;8(1):68-70 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  23. Hayashi H, Narita R, Hiura M, Abe S, Tabaru A, Tanimoto A, et al. A case of adult autoimmune hepatitis with histological features of giant cell hepatitis. Intern Med 2011;50(4):315-319 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  24. Tajiri K, Shimizu Y, Tokimitsu Y, Tsuneyama K, Sugiyama T. An elderly man with syncytial giant cell hepatitis successfully treated by immunosuppressants. Intern Med 2012;51(16):2141-2144 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  25. Teles C, Santos R, Silva CD, Vaio T. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis in the setting of autoimmune hepatitis: exclusively a histological pattern or a prognosis predictor?. BMJ Case Rep 2021;14(7):e243660 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  26. Tan YW, Wang JM, Chen L. Is simultaneous presence of IgG4-positive plasma cells and giant-cell hepatitis a coincidence in autoimmune hepatitis? A case report. World J Clin Cases 2021;9(25):7527-7534 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  27. Umemura T, Zen Y, Hamano H, Ichijo T, Kawa S, Nakanuma Y, et al. IgG4 associated autoimmune hepatitis: a differential diagnosis for classical autoimmune hepatitis. Gut 2007;56(10):1471-1472 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  28. Nguyen TD, Stanek S, Rossi S. S2463 Giant Cell Hepatitis and Autoimmune Hepatitis in a Patient With HIV. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2020;115:S1303-S1304 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  29. Roy J, Jain R, Schreibman I. S2503 A Towering Case of Giant-Cell Hepatitis. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2020;115:S1321-S1322 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  30. Ahmed K, Zucker SD. Giant cell hepatitis in a teenage woman. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;6(1):A26-26.e21 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  31. Stoffel MP, Steffen HM, Dries V, Dienes HP, Baldamus CA. Acute exacerbation of overlapping autoimmune liver disease with development of giant cell hepatitis after 14 years’ disease duration. J Intern Med 1998;244(4):355-360 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  32. Cairns A, McMahon RF. Giant cell hepatitis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Pathol 1996;49(2):183-184 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  33. Dohmen K, Ohtsuka S, Nakamura H, Arase K, Yokogawa Y, Asayama R, et al. Post-infantile giant cell hepatitis in an elderly female patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Gastroenterol 1994;29(3):362-368 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  34. Harrison RA, Bahar A, Payne MM. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis associated with long-term elevated transaminase levels in treated Graves’ disease. Am J Med 2002;112(4):326-327 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  35. Rauf M, Sen S, Levene A, Nisar MK. Giant Cell Hepatitis - A Rare Association with Connective Tissue Disease. Mediterr J Rheumatol 2019;30(4):224-227 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  36. Rabinovitz M, Demetris AJ. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis associated with anti-M2 mitochondrial antibodies. Gastroenterology 1994;107(4):1162-1164 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  37. Doria NS, Shaikh O, Tao SY, Frye RA. S2405 Post-Infantile Giant Cell Hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2020;115:S1276-S1277 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  38. Lau JY, Koukoulis G, Mieli-Vergani G, Portmann BC, Williams R. Syncytial giant-cell hepatitis—a specific disease entity?. J Hepatol 1992;15(1-2):216-219 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  39. Falasca L, Nonno FD, Palmieri F, Licordari R, Iannicelli G, Antonucci G, et al. Two cases of giant cell hepatitis in HIV-infected patients. Int J STD AIDS 2012;23(7):e3-4 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  40. Potenza L, Luppi M, Barozzi P, Rossi G, Cocchi S, Codeluppi M, et al. HHV-6A in syncytial giant-cell hepatitis. N Engl J Med 2008;359(6):593-602 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  41. Garioud A, Bachmeyer C, Cazier A, Bouredji D, Lison H, Medmoun M, et al. Postinfantile Giant Cell Hepatitis With Autoimmune Features Triggered by Primary Cytomegalovirus Infection in a Pregnant Woman. J Clin Gastroenterol 2016;50(5):437-438 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  42. Aikat BK, Bhattacharya T, Datta DV. Giant cell hepatitis with cytomegalovirus inclusions in an adult. A case report. J Assoc Physicians India 1974;22(1):63-66 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  43. Alexopoulou A, Deutsch M, Ageletopoulou J, Delladetsima JK, Marinos E, Kapranos N, et al. A fatal case of postinfantile giant cell hepatitis in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;15(5):551-555 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  44. Kethireddy N, Boyle E, Haley M, Reddy A, Forouhar F, Clement J. CLL associated giant cell hepatitis. Leuk Res 2019;82:43-45 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  45. Fimmel CJ, Guo L, Compans RW, Brunt EM, Hickman S, Perrillo RR, et al. A case of syncytial giant cell hepatitis with features of a paramyxoviral infection. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93(10):1931-1937 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  46. Garg A, Sasturkar S, Sharma P, Pamecha V, Singh S, Negi S, et al. 7 acute liver failure in giant cell hepatitis-successful adult-to-adult right lobe living-related liver transplantation. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2011;1(2):136 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  47. Bihari C, Rastogi A, Sarin SK. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis: an etiological and prognostic perspective. Hepat Res Treat 2013;2013:601290 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  48. Harmanci O, Onal IK, Ersoy O, Gurel B, Sokmensuer C, Bayraktar Y. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis due to hepatitis E virus along with the presence of autoantibodies. Dig Dis Sci 2007;52(12):3521-3523 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  49. Wu CH, Ho CM, Tsai JH, Sun HY, Hu RH, Lee PH. First Case Genotype 4 Hepatitis E Infection After a Liver Transplant. Exp Clin Transplant 2017;15(2):228-230 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  50. Pessayre D, Degos F, Feldmann G, Degott C, Bernuau J, Benhamou JP. Chronic active hepatitis and giant multinucleated hepatocytes in adults treated with clometacin. Digestion 1981;22(2):66-72 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  51. Arvaniti P, Zachou K, Koukoulis GK, Dalekos GN. Postinfantile Giant Cell Hepatitis with Features of Acute Severe Autoimmune Hepatitis Probably Triggered by Diclofenac in a Patient with Primary Myelofibrosis. Case Reports Hepatol 2018;2018:9793868 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  52. Mulder CJ, Cho RS, Harrison SA, Cebe K, Francis JM. Syphilitic hepatitis uncommon presentation of an old scourge. Mil Med 2015;180(5):e611-613 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  53. Shetty S, Janarthanan K, Leelakrishnan V, Nirmala V. Giant-cell Hepatitis-Rare Entity in Adults. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2016;6(3):244-245 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  54. Fraquelli M, Colli A, Cocciolo M, Conte D. Adult syncytial giant cell chronic hepatitis due to herbal remedy. J Hepatol 2000;33(3):505-508 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  55. Moreno-Otero R, Trapero-Marugan M, Garcia-Buey L, Garcia-Sancchez A. Drug-induced postinfantile giant cell hepatitis. Hepatology 2010;52(6):2245-2246 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  56. Schoepfer AM, Engel A, Fattinger K, Marbet UA, Criblez D, Reichen J, et al. Herbal does not mean innocuous: ten cases of severe hepatotoxicity associated with dietary supplements from Herbalife products. J Hepatol 2007;47(4):521-526 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  57. Autore F, Pasquale R, Innocenti I, Fresa A, Sora F, Laurenti L. Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: A Comprehensive Review. Cancers (Basel) 2021;13(22):5804 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  58. Colombo M, Donato MF. Images in hepatology. Adulthood giant-cell hepatitis. J Hepatol 1997;27(3):587 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  59. Gupta E, Yacoub M, Higgins M, Al-Katib AM. Syncytial giant cell hepatitis associated with chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a case report. BMC Blood Disord 2012;12:8 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  60. Gupta N, Njei B. Syncytial giant cell hepatitis in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. J Dig Dis 2015;16(11):683-688 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  61. Rhodes JM, Schuster SJ, Furth EE, Kennard K, Nasta SD, Svoboda J, et al. Management of giant cell hepatitis associated with chronic lymphocytic leukemia - a case series and review of the literature. Cancer Biol Ther 2019;20(8):1136-1140 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  62. Zent CS, Kay NE. Autoimmune complications in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL). Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2010;23(1):47-59 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  63. Durand F, Degott C, Sauvanet A, Molas G, Sicot C, Marcellin P, et al. Subfulminant syncytial giant cell hepatitis: recurrence after liver transplantation treated with ribavirin. J Hepatol 1997;26(3):722-726 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  64. Suarez-Vilela D, Izquierdo-Garcia FM, Olcoz-Goni JL. Sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy and giant cell hepatitis. An unreported association. Virchows Arch 2004;444(1):90-91 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  65. Amer R, Pe’er J, Pappo O, Dotan S. Necrobiotic xanthogranuloma associated with choroidal infiltration and syncytial giant cell hepatitis. J Neuroophthalmol 2005;25(3):189-192 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  66. Pedrosa AF, Ferreira O, Calistru A, Mota A, Baudrier T, Sarmento JA, et al. Necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with giant cell hepatitis, successfully treated with intravenous immunoglobulins. Dermatol Ther 2015;28(2):68-70 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  67. Kumar A, Minuk GY. Postinfantile giant cell hepatitis in association with hypereosinophilia. Gastroenterology 1991;101(5):1417-1419 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  68. Zenda T, Araki I, Sasaki M. Asymptomatic giant cell hepatitis: a subtype of post-infantile giant cell hepatitis?. Clin J Gastroenterol 2019;12(4):367-371 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  69. Horsmans Y, Galant C, Nicholas ML, Lamy M, Geubel AP. Failure of ribavarin or immunosuppressive therapy to alter the course of post-infantile giant-cell hepatitis. J Hepatol 1995;22(3):382 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  70. Matta B, Cabello R, Rabinovitz M, Minervini M, Malik S. Post-infantile giant cell hepatitis: A single center’s experience over 25 years. World Journal of Hepatology 2019;11(12):752-760 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  71. Leroy H, Han M, Woottum M, Bracq L, Bouchet J, Xie M, et al. Virus-Mediated Cell-Cell Fusion. Int J Mol Sci 2020;21(24):9644 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  72. Randhawa PS, Jenkins FJ, Nalesnik MA, Martens J, Williams PA, Ries A, et al. Herpesvirus 6 variant A infection after heart transplantation with giant cell transformation in bile ductular and gastroduodenal epithelium. Am J Surg Pathol 1997;21(7):847-853 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  73. Yunis E, Agostini R. Syncytial giant-cell hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1992;327(2):130-131 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  74. Koff RS. Acute and chronic giant cell hepatitis: a paramyxovirus infection?. Gastroenterology 1991;101(3):863-864 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  75. Spichtin HP, Gudat F, Schmid M, Pirovino M, Altorfer J, Bianchi L. Microtubular aggregates in human chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis with bridging hepatic necrosis and multinucleated hepatocytic giant cells. Liver 1982;2(4):355-360 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  76. Yunis EJ, Agostini RM, Glew RH. Fine structural observations of the liver in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency. Am J Pathol 1976;82(2):265-286 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  77. Simpson DG, Walker JH. Hypersensitivity to Para-Aminosalicylic Acid. American Journal of Medicine 1960;29(2):297-306 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  78. Coe RO, Bull FE. Cirrhosis Associated with Methotrexate Treatment of Psoriasis. JAMA 1968;206(7):1515-1520 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  79. Mcilvanie SK, Maccarthy JD. Hepatitis in Association with Prolonged 6-Mercaptopurine Therapy. Blood 1959;14(1):80-90 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  80. Smetana HF. The histopathology of drug-induced liver disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1963;104(3):821-846 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  81. Berk PD, Martin JF, Young RS, Creech J, Selikoff IJ, Falk H, et al. Vinyl Chloride-Associated Liver Disease. Ann Intern Med 1976;84(6):717-731 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  82. von Gizycki C, Granda EG, Chandler TM. S2572 Giant Enigma: A Case Report of Post-infantile Giant Cell Hepatitis Presenting With Seizures. Am J Gastroenterol 2021;116:S1083-S1084 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  83. Nair S, Baisden B, Boitnott J, Klein A, Thuluvath PJ. Recurrent, progressive giant cell hepatitis in two consecutive liver allografts in a middle-aged woman. J Clin Gastroenterol 2001;32(5):454-456 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  84. Hassoun Z, N’Guyen B, Cote J, Marleau D, Willems B, Roy A, et al. A case of giant cell hepatitis recurring after liver transplantation and treated with ribavirin. Can J Gastroenterol 2000;14(8):729-731 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  85. Pappo O, Yunis E, Jordan JA, Jaffe R, Mateo R, Fung J, et al. Recurrent and de novo giant cell hepatitis after orthotopic liver transplantation. Am J Surg Pathol 1994;18(8):804-813 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  86. Shah JA, Steinbrecher UP, Erb SR, Tha SP, Yoshida EM. Recurrent giant cell hepatitis in an 18 year old liver transplant patient. Ann Hepatol 2008;7(3):257 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  87. Eibach D, Hogan B, Sarpong N, Winter D, Struck NS, Adu-Sarkodie Y, et al. Viral metagenomics revealed novel betatorquevirus species in pediatric inpatients with encephalitis/meningoencephalitis from Ghana. Sci Rep 2019;9(1):2360 View Article PubMed/NCBI