v
Search
Advanced Search

Publications > Journals > Gene Expression > Article Full Text

  • Review Article
  • OPEN ACCESS

Non-surgical Treatment Options in Managing Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma

  • Walaa Abdelhamed1 and
  • Mohamed El-Kassas2,* 
 Author information  Cite
Gene Expression   2023;22(3):211-221

doi: 10.14218/GE.2023.00010

Abstract

Despite advances in current treatment options, Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) recurrence still presents as a significant clinical challenge. After initial treatment, HCC recurrence occurs in a considerable portion of patients without an available standardized protocol for managing such an incident. Recurrence of advanced liver disease may make surgical treatment options impossible, in which case, locoregional therapy should be considered as an alternative. This review article discusses recurrent HCC after initial treatment and available non-surgical treatment options. Along with systemic therapy, liver-targeted therapies for recurrent HCC including, radiofrequency, microwave ablation, transarterial chemoembolization, and stereotactic body radiation therapy are promising options. Thermal ablation with radiofrequency or microwave ablation is a suitable treatment option for patients who experience smaller tumor recurrences but are not operable because of comorbidities, impaired liver functions, or tumor locality. Transarterial chemoembolization or radioembolization using Yttrium-90 can be used for patients with an incurable disease and have comparatively low adverse effects.

Keywords

Hepatocellular carcinoma, Recurrence, Non-surgical, Transarterial chemoembolization, Systemic therapy

Introduction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths globally,1 has shown a 75% increase in frequency in Europe and North America over the past decades.2 The primary line of treatment for patients with early-stage disease and maintained liver function is liver resection. Nevertheless, the recurrence rate in the liver remnant has been reported to be up to 80%.3 More than 70% of recurrent HCC occurs early, within the first two years after intervention in about half of patients, even after successful surgical resection.4 In some reports, the recurrence rate at five years ranges from 50% to 70%.4,5 Among HCC patients chosen for liver transplantation (LT) based on established criteria, 10% to 60% of them will experience a recurrence of the disease.6 Some patients will experience post-LT recurrence within two to five years.6 The main factor contributing to the bad prognosis of HCC is the high prevalence of recurrence.7 Many treatment options are available for recurrent HCC (RHCC), including surgical resection, LT, and local ablation techniques, albeit LT cannot be done frequently due to the scarcity of donors.8 To date, there are no specific guidelines discussing the optimal management recommendations for RHCC after curative treatment.9,10 This review discusses this challenging issue that currently confounds clinicians and patients, and aims to highlight available non-surgical treatment options.

The pattern of HCC recurrence

HCC recurrence can occur in various scenarios, including local recurrence in the previously treated lesion, de novo recurrence, and the appearance of extrahepatic metastasis that may or may not be associated with liver tumors.11 De novo recurrence usually has a delayed onset (two years after initial treatment) and is associated with the presence of risk factors like liver cirrhosis. Local recurrence, however, happens more commonly during the first two years after treatment. Both tumor characteristics and biological behaviors can account for the variable timing of tumor recurrence.12 De novo HCC can also appear after a long period of no recurrence.13 And predictably, poor prognosis is related to the emergence of extrahepatic metastatic lesions.11 It is believed that tumor cells with mutations in certain genes, such as TP53 and ARID1A, exhibit aggressive behaviors with increased vascular invasion, metastasis, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition.14,15 The graphical abstract shows HCC recurrence patterns, risk factors and suggested therapies (Fig. 1).

The patterns of HCC recurrence, risk factors and suggested therapies.
Fig. 1  The patterns of HCC recurrence, risk factors and suggested therapies.

AFP, alfa fetoprotein; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; ICIs, immune checkpoint inhibitors; RHCC, recurrent HCC; SBRT, Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy; TARE, trans-arterial radioembolization; TKIs, tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

Risk factors for HCC recurrence after curative treatment modalities

Several studies have demonstrated that factors such as advanced tumor grading, larger lesions, the presence of microvascular invasion, and elevated tumor markers, are linked to high recurrence rates in post-LT.16,17 Age, bi-lobar affection, tumor multiplicity, lack of necrosis, lesions outside Milan criteria, high neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, micro satellitosis, and prior surgical resection are additional reported factors.18,19 Diabetes also seems to negatively affect the natural history and prognosis of HCC patients, regardless of the cirrhosis etiology.20 The key factors for recurrence in liver resection were microvascular invasion, increased serum alpha-fetoprotein, multinodular tumors, and tumor size.21 As vital tools for patient selection, genetic markers, and liquid biopsies for circulating microRNA and tumor cells have all been demonstrated to predict the possibility of recurrence.22,23 Some immunological characteristics may serve as recurrence predictors.24 For example, the levels of CD3+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes at the margins of the tumor after resection are used as indicators for recurrence.24 Additionally, tumor aggressiveness and recurrence risk are related to the expression of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) in immune and tumor cells.24Table 1 shows different hypotheses of HCC recurrence.25–32

Table 1

Summary of the different hypotheses of HCC recurrence

AuthorTheorySample sizeType of study
Wang et al., 201925High IL-11 levelsHCC patients undergoing surgeryProspective study
Wang et al., 2021269-IR-lncRNA signature319 HCC samples from HCC radical resection, were randomly divided into a training cohort (161 samples) and a testing cohort (158 samples).Prospective study
Du et al., 201927High expression of Sec6260 HCC samples with Sec62 knockdown (Sec62(KD)) or overexpression (Sec62(OE))Case-control study
Debes et al., 201828Increased TNFα Secretion. Change in IL-6 serum level.13 patients with HCC appeared within 18 months after DAAs therapyCase-control study
Villani et al., 201629Rapid reduction of IL-10 & TNFα serum level103 chronic hepatitis C patients during DAA regimensProspective study
Casadei et al., 201830Modulation of differential white blood cell count: The disproportion between lymphocytes and neutrophils is obvious in HCC patients, which results in an unfavorable microenvironment, and favors the growth of cancer cells.308 patients with cirrhosis, treated with DAA for HCVRetrospective study
Francesca et al., 201831Increase of VEGF serum level. ANGPT2 expression in the primary tumor.242 HCC patients with advanced fibrosis who received DAA for HCVprospective study
Rosanna et al., 201832Immune cell alteration. Imbalance of cytokine network and angiogenesis

ANGPT2, angiopoietin-2; DAAs, direct-acting antivirals; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; HCV, hepatitis C virus; lncRNA, long noncoding RNA; IL, interleukin; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.

Potential therapies for the prevention of recurrent HCC after radical treatment

Numerous studies on recurrence prevention have been conducted to date, but none have been successful.33,34 The most prominent adjuvant therapy for recurrence prevention conducted are investigated vitamin K,33 retinoids (the NIK-333 study),35 and sorafenib.34

Everolimus may prevent the recurrence of HCC post-LT and increase overall survival (OS) by inhibiting progression in recurrent HCC.36 Adding everolimus to calcineurin’s inhibitors-based immunosuppressive regimen is a potential treatment for HCC patients despite its multiple adverse effects, including dyslipidemia and proteinuria.36

In a study from Hong Kong, hepatitis B virus (HBV) anti-viral therapy (Lamidin or entecavir) given after hepatectomy, enhanced disease-free survival and OS, especially in stage 1 or 2 tumors.37 This suggests that the anti-tumorous effect of antivirals in HCC recurrence is attributable to the decrease in HBV viral load and consequently chronic inflammation.37

Aspirin, statins, and anti-diabetic medications have all been linked in various trials to protect against HCC recurrence.38 Statins can prevent HCC recurrence through decreasing viremia in patients with viral hepatitis either hepatitis C virus (HCV) or HBV.38 Possible pathways include lowering blood concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines,38,39 reducing the virulence of viral infections39,40 or slowing progression to cirrhosis.39 A recent meta-analysis confirmed the role of statins in chemoprevention of HCC occurrence especially with lipophilic statins.41

Treatment modalities for recurrent HCC

Radiofrequency ablation

Due to excellent efficacy and minimum invasiveness, radiofrequency ablation (RFA) has become widely used in treating primary and metastatic liver tumors.42,43 Albeit, studies using RFA to treat RHCC following curative hepatectomy are scarce.44 According to a report published by Choi et al, the overall 1, 2 and 3-year survival rates were 82, 72 and 54% respectively.44 Reported survival rates in early-stage RHCC patients did not differ significantly between repeat hepatectomy and RFA, according to a randomized clinical trial.45

In RHCC after resection, the most frequently used therapeutical approaches are transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) and percutaneous ethanol injection (PEI).46 However, long-term survival in these situations is not optimal.46 RFA causes higher instances of necrosis compared to PEI in small lesions and in infiltrating tumors of any size but circumvents the adverse effects that occur when a large dose of ethanol is administered.47

RFA can be simply and safely repeated in treating a residual tumor or intrahepatic recurrence.46 Six patients who experienced three or four sessions of RFA reported a survival of 14 to 54 months without experiencing any major problems.46 Percutaneous RFA, however, has some limitations and a higher risk of inadequate tumor ablation in tumors close to the major hepatic vessels.46

In comparison to repeat hepatectomy, RFA is more tolerable, with patients experiencing fewer adverse events, lessened risk of bleeding risk and shorter times in hospital admission.48 Tumor location is a significant factor that affects RFA technique, and tumors that are adjacent to the liver capsule or a sizable vessel may be at higher risk for complications.49

In general, the tumor locality in low-efficiency areas, such as near the gallbladder, stomach, and diaphragm, should be carefully examined when performing the RFA procedure.50,51 Subcapsular HCC has a high local tumor progression rate (LTP) because of the small safety margin of ablation around the liver capsule and the small space for placing electrodes.52 Additionally, the related thermal harm to nearby structures, hemorrhage, or tumor seeding alongside the needle tract during subcapsular tumor ablation raised the likelihood of serious consequences.53 RFA can also be utilized for HCC lesions near the liver capsule, according to some reports.49,54 A second recurrence of HCC is nevertheless a common occurrence, even when RHCC is completely eliminated by repeated surgical resection and RFA.55 In the repeated surgical resection and RFA groups, up to 73.7% and 78.4% of patients experienced another recurrence.55 Similarly, Chan et al. observed that 84.4% of patients who had RFA and 72.4% of patients who had surgical resection experienced another recurrence.56 It has been claimed that surgical resection better eliminates small, invisible lesions than RFA.57 Microwave ablation (MWA) and RFA were compared in a meta-analysis including 921 patients from various randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and the results showed that the two procedures had comparable efficacy and safety profiles. However, MWA does appear to lower the frequency of long-term recurrences.58

Transarterial chemoembolization

Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) is the main treatment option as a palliative therapy for HCC. It combines targeted chemotherapy with vascular embolization.59 Resection or local ablation is the best treatment choice for recurrent HCC, assuming the liver condition is Child-Pugh class A or B, and the tumor is in the proper site.60 If these requirements are not met, TACE might then be the best option.61 TACE is a well-tolerated therapy with less liver damage than surgical resection.62,63 It therefore can be used effectively and widely for individuals with intrahepatic HCC recurrence.61 Retrospective data analysis from 70 HCC subjects that received conventional cTACE showed that post-treatment transient elevation in liver enzymes was an independent predictor of response in super selective cTACE.64 Some reports, meanwhile, have examined the effects of TACE in RHCC.61 According to a recent study, patients with RHCC who received TACE had satisfactory outcomes; however, their progression-free survival (PFS) was not as good as those with treatment-naïve HCC who had never received treatment for their HCC.65 According to other studies, liver resection was the preferable option for improving survival compared to TACE patients.66,67 Additionally, some reports examined the effectiveness of TACE in reducing the recurrence of HCC following orthotopic liver transplantation.68 After TACE treatment, there is an opportunity for immunotherapy since TACE increases the expression of the programmed death receptor 1 and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and the tumor-specific CD8 + T cell response.69 However, there was a comparable efficacy between TACE combined with camrelizumab and TACE alone for RHCC, with no appreciable statistical differences between both comparators as regards PFS, and rates of objective response and disease control.70 According to data from the STORM study, sorafenib did not significantly benefit HCC patients after resection or ablation.34 Its usage has been severely constrained by severe side effects and the high resistance rate.71,72 Apatinib is ten times more effective than sorafenib at blocking the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2,73 and an RCT was carried out to examine the impact of TACE combined with apatinib on RHCC.74 When compared to TACE therapy alone, apatinib + TACE produced a PFS benefit of 4.7 months, besides greater objective response and disease control rates.74 Neoadjuvant TACE, when used in conjunction with RFA, could prevent hepatic artery flow and decrease the flow coming from portal circulation, reducing the possible heat-sink effect that may occur during RFA, and increasing the ablation efficiency.75 Neoadjuvant TACE could help RFA to expand the size of ablated area in lesions where microvascular invasion is MVI-positive, which would subsequently increase the likelihood of clearing micrometastases and aid in lowering the risk of recurrence.75,76

Microwave ablation

In past years, microwave ablation (MWA) use as a curative treatment for HCC has increased.77 MWA offers some benefits over RFA, inclusive of shorter ablation periods, larger ablated areas, more intra-tumoral temperatures, and complete coagulative necrosis.77 Even though MWA produces a larger ablation zone and a higher disease-free survival rate than RFA, it has comparable two-year OS and complete response rates.78 Many studies have reported similar efficacy between MWA and RFA regarding the possibility of local recurrence and the survival rates in primary HCC and with reported 5-year OS rates of 43–60%.79,80–82 However, Liu et al. showed that, in cases within the Milan criteria, MWA produced a superior five-year OS when compared to RFA with a longer follow-up.78 For more than 20 years, surgical MWA, also known as microwave coagulo-necrotic treatment, has been used to treat primary and recurrent HCC with positive long-term oncological outcomes.83–85 More than 60% of patients with RHCC following the first resection have had surgical MWA.85 For patients with recurrent small HCC, TACE-MWA may provide superior tumor control than TACE.86 This was consistent with the findings of the study by Chen et al.87 Following the initial treatment, this study revealed that 82.7% of tumors in the combined TACE-MWA arm had complete tumor ablation, compared to 42.8% of lesions in the TACE alone arm at one month (p = 0.013), and that the cumulative OS rates at five years were 61.1% for the combined TACE-MWA group, and 50.3% for TACE alone in patients with recurrent small HCC, which is comparable to other similar reports examining the 5-year cumulative OS rates of combined TACE and RFA treatment (46–60%).76,88 Total necrosis following TACE has been associated with favorable survival outcomes in RHCC,63 however, the authors could not find a significant difference in OS between the TACE and combined TACE-MWA arm.

High-intensity focused ultrasound

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) ablation is one of the recent modalities that could offer a completely non-invasive ablation for HCC, which is also feasible for patients with advanced liver cirrhosis.89 In order to cause necrosis of the target lesion by raising the tissue temperature to above 60°C, it uses a particular ultrasound wave frequency, 0.8–3.5 MHz, which can be controlled and focused remotely.90,91

For HCCs less than 3 cm, HIFU attained a total ablation rate of 82.4% in a single treatment session.92 It is also well tolerated in elderly patients.92 Ascitic patients can receive HIFU safely because it acts as a conduit for energy transfer and shields other parts of the body from the effective HIFU waves.93

The advantage of HIFU over RFA is that the temperature outside the target point is constant, which makes it less prone to accidental collateral damage.91 New research has shown that HIFU could successfully treat recurrent HCC.94 Throughout a median follow-up period of 27.9 months, there were no variations in lesion size, disease-free survival rates, or OS rates between patients with RHCC who received HIFU (n = 27) and those who had RFA (n = 76).94 Some HIFU-related side effects, including momentary pain and superficial skin injuries (81% and 39%, respectively), have been documented in studies.95 In one Hong Kong center, HIFU is used with comparable survival results to RFA for lesions less than 3 cm and in patients with RHCC.92,94,96 Retrospective study data revealed that more HIFU-bridged patients than TACE-treated patients had responded completely to treatment.89

Radiotherapy

Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy

Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT) is included in the practice guidance statement from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, and the 2019 National Comprehensive Cancer Network Guidelines as an effective non-surgical treatment option for localized intrahepatic HCC.97,98 When compared to TACE or thermal ablation, SBRT exhibits equivalent safety and efficacy, with control rates of 70–80% for intrahepatic tumors, even for large sizes. It is important to keep the radiation dose affecting the surrounding liver tissue to a minimum and consider the liver functions before the intervention.99,100 For patients with maintained liver function, repeated SBRT for RHCC provided good tumor ablation results with an acceptable safety profile and satisfactory OS similar to other ablative therapies with cure intent.101 According to Honda et al., the SBRT and TACE combination dramatically decreased local recurrences and improved OS.102 After surgical resection or RFA, the remaining or RHCC may also be treated with SBRT.103

According to several studies, SBRT showed good results in recurrent malignancies as a salvage treatment or as an alternative to TACE/RFA.104–106 TACE/RFA was not appropriate for the patients in these investigations because they frequently received extensive pretreatment, had large tumors, comorbidities, and advanced liver disease.106 At two years, the results from recent prospective and retrospective trials ranged from 68 to 95 percent and were comparable with the control.106 SBRT does not appear in liver cancer treatment guidelines since no completed randomized trials provide level 1 evidence of its effectiveness.107–109 However, SBRT is an option for HCC management according to the American Society of Radiation Oncology recommendations.110 SBRT offers acceptable tumor control and survival benefits (3-year disease control: 68–97% and 3-year survival: 39–84%) in cases where RFA is not feasible or in HCC recurrence following RFA or TACE.111

Trans-arterial radioembolization

Trans-arterial radioembolization (TARE) with 90Y-loaded glass or resin microspheres is one of the available treatment modalities for patients with advanced liver disease.112 However, concerning survival, available studies do not prove the superiority of TARE coupled with chemotherapy as a first-line treatment for colorectal cancer metastases.113 The same was reported regarding the combined TARE and Sorafenib treatment in HCC with advanced or recurrent disease.114 TARE showed benefit in colorectal cancer metastases of distinct origin, intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, or advanced HCC.115,116 A decline in liver function or the occurrence of radioembolization-induced liver disease (ascites, liver insufficiency, hyperbilirubinemia), as well as pancytopenia, or post-embolization syndrome (fatigue, hyperthermia, pain, and gastric upset), have all been documented as signs of toxicity.115,117 Slower disease progression after TARE (mean, 13.3 months) was reported compared to TACE (8.4 months), but without a significant improvement in OS (20.5 months in TARE vs 17.4 months in TACE).118 The same study reported significant postembolization syndrome after TACE, but with a similar rate of severe adverse events in both TACE and TARE.118 Another study reported a non-significant difference between TACE and TARE with regard to HCC recurrence rates (p-value = 0.33).119 Combining an immune-checkpoint inhibitor with vascular endothelial growth factor blockade and 90Y-TARE might help prevent primary resistance encountered with the sole administration of each of these medications.120

Systemic therapy

Sorafenib, Lenvatinib, and atezolizumab/bevacizumab are currently the Food and Drug Administration approved first-line systemic treatment options for patients with advanced-stage liver disease.121 Tyrosine kinase inhibitors and other new drugs are used in clinical trials to increase patients’ frontline systemic treatment choices.122 Failure of sorafenib as the first-line treatment opens the door for using second-line options. The following drugs are licensed for use in the second-line setting: regorafenib, nivolumab/ipilimumab, pembrolizumab, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab (for patients with an alfa fetoprotein >400).123,124 Lenvatinib and atezolizumab/bevacizumab were approved as a consequence of the recently announced landmark trials REFLECT and IMbrave150.121,122 RHCC or a progression of recurrence, not eligible for resection or local ablative treatments, have been considered as untreatable presentation/progression.125 Recent reports proved the benefit of treating post-LT RHCC in the untreatable presentation/progression stage with the multitarget tyrosine kinase inhibitor, sorafenib.126,127 Furthermore, due to the synergistic interaction between sorafenib and immunosuppressive drugs like the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors, the combination of sorafenib with these agents has come under scrutiny.128–130 Sorafenib has been approved to treat RHCC following LT as an extension of the recommendations of the European Association for Study of the Liver and American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases as the front-line treatment for advanced HCC.131–133

The median survival after sorafenib administration, according to case reports and a limited number of case series ranges between 14 and 42 months.126,131 This is a meaningful improvement in survival compared to other systemic therapies, such as chemotherapy or best supportive care.125,126,134,135 Evidence of radiologic regression in LT patients with RHCC suggests sorafenib’s effectiveness in inhibiting cancer cell proliferation,136,137 whereas the use of mTOR continues to be controversial.127,138

In Asia, several randomized studies have shown that after curative resection or ablation, adoptive immunotherapy decreased the rate of HCC recurrence and increased OS in some reports.139,140 Tumor-directed vaccinations have decreased recurrence rates in a few small, randomized trials.141,142 A report revealed a link between high Immunoscore (a composite assay integrating density of CD3+ and CD8+ T cells in the center and periphery of the lesion), a significantly lower rate of HCC recurrence and prolonged recurrence-free survival RFS.143 According to this, CD3+ and CD8+ positive T-cell populations invading the tumor likely play a crucial part in triggering the immune reaction against cancer which serves as a mediator to prevent the recurrence of HCC.143 Other cytotoxic T-cell infiltration, including that of CD4+ cells, is also associated with a decreased recurrence likelihood.144 Despite concerns over the preventive role of sirolimus in patients receiving LT for HCC, only one substantial series has reported sirolimus as a therapy for HCC recurrence.145 In 2010, a report from the Bilbao group included two patients with RHCC, treated with an everolimus/sorafenib combination, and reported a survival of 18.5 (without recurrence) and 10 months (with recurrence).146 However, finding consistent predictors of response to immunotherapy in HCC needs further study as about 70% of patients with advanced HCC receiving immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) do not respond to this treatment.147 The use of immunotherapy in HCC has nominally been associated with several limitations.148 Early death with first-line ICI is a clinically relevant phenomenon across solid malignancies, which is not predictable by PD-L1 expression but is preventable through the addition of other treatments to ICI.149 Recently, Zheng et al., observed some dynamic alterations in microbiota of HCC patients during immunotherapy administration.150 In this intriguing study, stools from patients who responded to ICIs had higher taxonomic richness than stools from patients who did not respond, indicating that the human microbiota may have a significant influence on the effectiveness of the immunotherapy in HCC patients.150 In addition, long noncoding RNAs represent a new area of investigation in the prediction of immunotherapy response.151,152 The long noncoding RNA MIR155 host gene is linked to PD-L1 and CTLA-4, and this gene could be a potential biomarker for predicting ICI response.153Table 2 shows a summary of some non-surgical treatment options used in patients with RHCC.44,68,76,78,136,145,154–157

Table 2

A summary of the decision-making for patients with RHCC

StudyPrimary radical treatment before HCC recurrenceNewley used non-surgical treatment option
Lai et al., 201844liver resectionRFA
Zhang et al., 2017154liver resectionRFA
Yamagami et al., 201468LTTACE
Lee et al., 202278LTMWA
Na et al., 2016155LTSorafenib+ mTOR inhibitor
Takahara et al., 2011136LTSorafenib
Alamo et al., 2009145LTSirolimus
Peng et al., 201276liver resectionTACE-RFA
Invernizzi et al., 2020156LTSorafenib+ mTOR inhibitor
Yoon et al., 2010157LTSorafenib

HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; LT, liver transplantation; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; MWA, microwave ablation; RHCC, recurrent HCC; TACE, Transarterial chemoembolization; RFA, radiofrequency ablation.

Combination therapies

Limited retrospective reports have demonstrated that the administration of sorafenib following RFA had a considerably greater ablation area, fewer recurrence incidents, and better OS compared to RFA alone in 0-B stages of HCC by Barcelona clinic liver cancer.158,159 Meanwhile, there was no significant difference between adjuvant sorafenib and placebo following response to local ablation regarding median recurrence-free survival in the phase III STORM trial.34 A meta-analysis examined the effect of RFA and MWA as locoregional ablative treatments in combination with sorafenib, reported that this combination had extended OS at one, two, and three years, less two-year HCC recurrences, and higher overall efficacy compared to RFA-alone.160 Moreover, a Korean phase III RCT showed that curative treatments for HCC (resection, RFA, or ethanol injection) had an extended recurrence-free and OS with adjuvant immunotherapy with activated CIK cells (CD3+/CD56+ and CD3+/CD56- T cells and CD3-/CD56+ natural killer cells) than without it.140 Another report showed that patients with RHCC who have no more than three lesions, tumors with a diameter less than 3 cm, extrahepatic metastases, or portal vein/hepatic vein invasion, responded well to RFA plus anti-programmed death receptor 1 therapy.161 In general, data regarding the efficacy of combination therapies are scarce. The availability of more evidence in the near future could prioritize this approach in management guidelines.

Future perspectives

There is a pressing need to understand the predictors of ICIs and identifying tissue and molecular markers that respond to ICIs is an important future challenge for its use in several solid tumors, including HCC.120 Efforts are also aimed at evaluating novel predictors for the response to ICIs, contemplating tumor-intrinsic (e.g., PD-L1 expression, TMB, MSI status, etc.), immune-properties, and combinative biomarkers. Combination systemic therapies in RHCC is a facet that is still relatively unexplored, and research based on larger clinical trials is needed to further develop our understanding.

Conclusion

HCC recurrence can occur in 70–80% of cases following potentially curative interventions like resection or ablation. There is no available standardized approach for managing RHCC since HCC has diverse recurrence forms and timing. However, existing data from clinical trials or real-life studies regarding the treatment options and expected outcomes of treating HCC recurrence shows some promise. Optimal selection of candidates for curative interventions like liver resection, local thermal ablation with RFA or MWA, and LT is an obligate demand for the success of the retreatment with such modalities. Strict follow-up protocols after intervention are a must for early detection of any subsequent recurrence.

Less invasive palliative techniques with potential benefits, like TACE and radioembolization, have relatively low risk and can be used for patients with incurable diseases who are not eligible for hepatectomy or LT. Similarly, SBRT is an option that provides reasonable disease control and a modest survival benefit in recurrent small HCC following surgical intervention. Response to systemic therapy offered to patients with advanced RHCC is promising, and more studies are required to better identify target patient populations that may benefit from this line of therapy. Immunotherapy-based therapeutic choices are emerging as an attractive option for RHCC because the immune constituent of the hepatic microenvironment plays a crucial role in disease recurrence. Finally, even though the majority of available evidence regarding RHCC management shows encouraging findings, additional prospective RCTs are required to provide more reliable clinical data that can be used for the development of standardized guidelines for managing RHCC.

Abbreviations

AFP: 

alfa fetoprotein

ANGPT2: 

angiopoietin-2

DAAs: 

direct-acting antivirals

HBV: 

hepatitis B virus

HCC: 

hepatocellular carcinoma

HCV: 

hepatitis C virus

HIFU: 

high-intensity focused ultrasound

ICIs: 

immune checkpoint inhibitors

lncRNA: 

long noncoding RNA

IL-6: 

interleukin-6

LT: 

liver transplantation

LTP: 

local tumor progression rate

mTOR: 

mammalian target of rapamycin

MWA: 

microwave ablation

OS: 

overall survival

PEI: 

percutaneous ethanol injection

PD-L1: 

programmed death ligand 1

PFS: 

progression-free survival

RCTs: 

randomized controlled trials

RFA: 

radiofrequency ablation

RHCC: 

recurrent HCC

SBRT: 

Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy

TACE: 

transarterial chemoembolization

TARE: 

trans-arterial radioembolization

TKIs: 

tyrosine kinase inhibitors

TNF-α: 

tumor necrosis factor α

VEGF: 

vascular endothelial growth factor

Declarations

Acknowledgement

None.

Funding

This work is non-funded.

Conflict of interest

MEK has been an editorial board member of Gene Expression since September 2022. The authors have no other conflict of interests related to this publication.

Authors’ contributions

MEK contributed to the conception and design of the work and literature review. WA wrote the first draft of the manuscript. MEK provided critical revision and editing. Both authors revised and approved the final version of the manuscript.

References

  1. Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin 2018;68(6):394-424 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  2. Akinyemiju T, Abera S, Ahmed M, Alam N, Alemayohu MA, Global Burden of Disease Liver Cancer Collaboration, et al. The burden of primary liver cancer and underlying etiologies from 1990 to 2015 at the global, regional, and national level: results from the global burden of disease study 2015. JAMA Oncol 2017;3(12):1683-1691 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  3. Kokudo N, Takemura N, Hasegawa K, Takayama T, Kubo S, Shimada M, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hepatocellular carcinoma: The Japan Society of Hepatology 2017 (4th JSH-HCC guidelines) 2019 update. Hepatol Res 2019;49(10):1109-1113 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  4. Imamura H, Matsuyama Y, Tanaka E, Ohkubo T, Hasegawa K, Miyagawa S, et al. Risk factors contributing to early and late phase intrahepatic recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after hepatectomy. J Hepatol 2003;38(2):200-207 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  5. Meniconi RL, Komatsu S, Perdigao F, Boëlle PY, Soubrane O, Scatton O. Recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma: a Western strategy that emphasizes the impact of pathologic profile of the first resection. Surgery 2015;157(3):454-462 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  6. Chok KS, Chan SC, Cheung TT, Chan AC, Fan ST, Lo CM. Late recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. World J Surg 2011;35(9):2058-2062 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  7. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2018;69(1):182-236 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  8. de Lope CR, Tremosini S, Forner A, Reig M, Bruix J. Management of HCC. J Hepatol 2012;56(Suppl 1):S75-S87 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  9. Joliat GR, Allemann P, Labgaa I, Demartines N, Halkic N. Treatment and outcomes of recurrent hepatocellular carcinomas. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2017;402(5):737-744 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  10. Erridge S, Pucher PH, Markar SR, Malietzis G, Athanasiou T, Darzi A, et al. Meta-analysis of determinants of survival following treatment of recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Surg 2017;104(11):1433-1442 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  11. Llovet JM, Bruix J. Molecular targeted therapies in hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2008;48(4):1312-1327 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  12. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 2011;144(5):646-674 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  13. Tung-Ping Poon R, Fan ST, Wong J. Risk factors, prevention, and management of postoperative recurrence after resection of hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Surg 2000;232(1):10-24 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  14. Ouyang L, Lee J, Park CK, Mao M, Shi Y, Gong Z, et al. Whole-genome sequencing of matched primary and metastatic hepatocellular carcinomas. BMC Med Genomics 2014;7:2 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  15. Choi JH, Kim MJ, Park YK, Im JY, Kwon SM, Kim HC, et al. Mutations acquired by hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence give rise to an aggressive phenotype. Oncotarget 2017;8(14):22903-22916 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  16. Varona MA, Soriano A, Aguirre-Jaime A, Garrido S, Oton E, Diaz D, et al. Risk factors of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation: accuracy of the alpha-fetoprotein model in a single-center experience. Transplant Proc 2015;47(1):84-89 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  17. Chan KM, Chou HS, Wu TJ, Lee CF, Yu MC, Lee WC. Characterization of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation: perioperative prognostic factors, patterns, and outcome. Asian J Surg 2011;34(3):128-134 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  18. Oligane HC, Xing M, Kim HS. Effect of bridging local-regional therapy on recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma and survival after orthotopic liver transplantation. Radiology 2017;282(3):869-879 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  19. Agopian VG, Harlander-Locke M, Zarrinpar A, Kaldas FM, Farmer DG, Yersiz H, et al. A novel prognostic nomogram accurately predicts hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation: analysis of 865 consecutive liver transplant recipients. J Am Coll Surg 2015;220(4):416-427 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  20. Facciorusso A. The influence of diabetes in the pathogenesis and the clinical course of hepatocellular carcinoma: recent findings and new perspectives. Curr Diabetes Rev 2013;9(5):382-386 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  21. Xing H, Zhang WG, Cescon M, Liang L, Li C, Wang MD, et al. Defining and predicting early recurrence after liver resection of hepatocellular carcinoma: a multi-institutional study. HPB (Oxford) 2020;22(5):677-689 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  22. Okajima W, Komatsu S, Ichikawa D, Miyamae M, Ohashi T, Imamura T, et al. Liquid biopsy in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: Circulating tumor cells and cell-free nucleic acids. World J Gastroenterol 2017;23(31):5650-5668 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  23. Portolani N, Coniglio A, Ghidoni S, Giovanelli M, Benetti A, Tiberio GA, et al. Early and late recurrence after liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma: prognostic and therapeutic implications. Ann Surg 2006;243(2):229-235 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  24. Ma J, Zheng B, Goswami S, Meng L, Zhang D, Cao C, et al. PD1(Hi) CD8(+) T cells correlate with exhausted signature and poor clinical outcome in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Immunother Cancer 2019;7(1):331 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  25. Wang D, Zheng X, Fu B, Nian Z, Qian Y, Sun R, et al. Hepatectomy promotes recurrence of liver cancer by enhancing IL-11-STAT3 signaling. EBioMedicine 2019;46:119-132 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  26. Wang XX, Wu LH, Ai L, Pan W, Ren JY, Zhang Q, et al. Construction of an HCC recurrence model basedon the investigation of immune-relatedlncRNAs and related mechanisms. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids 2021;26:1387-1400 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  27. Du J, Zhao Z, Zhao H, Liu D, Liu H, Chen J, et al. Sec62 promotes early recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma through activating integrinα/CAV1 signalling. Oncogenesis 2019;8(12):74 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  28. Debes JD, van Tilborg M, Groothuismink ZMA, Hansen BE, Schulze Zur Wiesch J, von Felden J, et al. Levels of cytokines in serum associate with development of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with HCV infection treated with direct-acting antivirals. Gastroenterology 2018;154(3):515-517.e3 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  29. Villani R, Facciorusso A, Bellanti F, Tamborra R, Piscazzi A, Landriscina M, et al. DAAs rapidly reduce inflammation but increase serum VEGF level: a rationale for tumor risk during Anti-HCV treatment. PLoS One 2016;11(12):e0167934 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  30. Casadei Gardini A, Conti F, Foschi FG, Brillanti S, Andreone P, Bologna DAA group. Imbalance of neutrophils and lymphocyte counts can be predictive of hepatocellular carcinoma occurrence in hepatitis C-related cirrhosis treated with direct-acting antivirals. Gastroenterology 2018;154(8):2281-2282 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  31. Faillaci F, Marzi L, Critelli R, Milosa F, Schepis F, Turola E, et al. Liver Angiopoietin-2 is a key predictor of de novo or recurrent hepatocellular cancer after hepatitis C virus direct-acting antivirals. Hepatology 2018;68(3):1010-1024 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  32. Villani R, Vendemiale G, Serviddio G. Molecular mechanisms involved in HCC recurrence after direct-acting antiviral therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2018;20(1):49 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  33. Yoshida H, Shiratori Y, Kudo M, Shiina S, Mizuta T, Kojiro M, et al. Effect of vitamin K2 on the recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2011;54(2):532-540 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  34. Bruix J, Takayama T, Mazzaferro V, Chau GY, Yang J, Kudo M, et al. Adjuvant sorafenib for hepatocellular carcinoma after resection or ablation (STORM): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 2015;16(13):1344-1354 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  35. Okita K, Izumi N, Matsui O, Tanaka K, Kaneko S, Moriwaki H, et al. Peretinoin after curative therapy of hepatitis C-related hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Gastroenterol 2015;50(2):191-202 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  36. Kang I, Lee JG, Choi SH, Kim HJ, Han DH, Choi GH, et al. Impact of everolimus on survival after liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Mol Hepatol 2021;27(4):589-602 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  37. Chan AC, Chok KS, Yuen WK, Chan SC, Poon RT, Lo CM, et al. Impact of antiviral therapy on the survival of patients after major hepatectomy for hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma. Arch Surg 2011;146(6):675-681 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  38. Fujiwara N, Friedman SL, Goossens N, Hoshida Y. Risk factors and prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in the era of precision medicine. J Hepatol 2018;68(3):526-549 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  39. Janicko M, Drazilova S, Pella D, Fedacko J, Jarcuska P. Pleiotropic effects of statins in the diseases of the liver. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22(27):6201-6213 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  40. Kawaguchi Y, Sakamoto Y, Ito D, Ito K, Arita J, Akamatsu N, et al. Statin use is associated with a reduced risk of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after initial liver resection. Biosci Trends 2017;11(5):574-580 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  41. Facciorusso A, Abd El Aziz MA, Singh S, Pusceddu S, Milione M, Giacomelli L, et al. Statin Use Decreases the Incidence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: An Updated Meta-Analysis. Cancers (Basel) 2020;12(4):874 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  42. Solbiati L, Livraghi T, Goldberg SN, Ierace T, Meloni F, Dellanoce M, et al. Percutaneous radio-frequency ablation of hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer: long-term results in 117 patients. Radiology 2001;221(1):159-166 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  43. Livraghi T, Goldberg SN, Lazzaroni S, Meloni F, Ierace T, Solbiati L, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: radio-frequency ablation of medium and large lesions. Radiology 2000;214(3):761-768 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  44. Choi D, Lim HK, Kim MJ, Lee SH, Kim SH, Lee WJ, et al. Recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma: percutaneous radiofrequency ablation after hepatectomy. Radiology 2004;230(1):135-141 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  45. Xia Y, Li J, Liu G, Wang K, Qian G, Lu Z, et al. Long-term Effects of Repeat Hepatectomy vs Percutaneous Radiofrequency Ablation Among Patients With Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Oncol 2020;6(2):255-263 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  46. Sugimachi K, Maehara S, Tanaka S, Shimada M, Sugimachi K. Repeat hepatectomy is the most useful treatment for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 2001;8(5):410-416 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  47. Livraghi T, Benedini V, Lazzaroni S, Meloni F, Torzilli G, Vettori C. Long term results of single session percutaneous ethanol injection in patients with large hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 1998;83(1):48-57 PubMed/NCBI
  48. Omata M, Lesmana LA, Tateishi R, Chen PJ, Lin SM, Yoshida H, et al. Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver consensus recommendations on hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatol Int 2010;4(2):439-474 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  49. Chen J, Peng K, Hu D, Shen J, Zhou Z, Xu L, et al. Tumor Location Influences Oncologic Outcomes of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Patients Undergoing Radiofrequency Ablation. Cancers (Basel) 2018;10(10):378 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  50. Song I, Rhim H, Lim HK, Kim YS, Choi D. Percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of hepatocellular carcinoma abutting the diaphragm and gastrointestinal tracts with the use of artificial ascites: safety and technical efficacy in 143 patients. Eur Radiol 2009;19(11):2630-2640 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  51. Kim SW, Rhim H, Park M, Kim H, Kim YS, Choi D, et al. Percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of hepatocellular carcinomas adjacent to the gallbladder with internally cooled electrodes: assessment of safety and therapeutic efficacy. Korean J Radiol 2009;10(4):366-376 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  52. Lai ZC, Liang JY, Chen LD, Wang Z, Ruan SM, Xie XY, et al. Do hepatocellular carcinomas located in subcapsular space or in proximity to vessels increase the rate of local tumor progression? A meta-analysis. Life Sci 2018;207:381-385 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  53. Llovet JM, Vilana R, Brú C, Bianchi L, Salmeron JM, Boix L, et al. Increased risk of tumor seeding after percutaneous radiofrequency ablation for single hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2001;33(5):1124-1129 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  54. Filippousis P, Sotiropoulou E, Manataki A, Konstantinopoulos O, Thanos L. Radiofrequency ablation of subcapsular hepatocellular carcinoma: single center experience. Eur J Radiol 2011;77(2):299-304 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  55. Yin X, Hua T, Liang C, Chen Z. Efficacy of re-resection versus radiofrequency ablation for recurrent Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer stage 0/A hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) after resection for primary HCC. Transl Cancer Res 2019;8(4):1035-1045 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  56. Chan AC, Poon RT, Cheung TT, Chok KS, Chan SC, Fan ST, et al. Survival analysis of re-resection versus radiofrequency ablation for intrahepatic recurrence after hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Surg 2012;36(1):151-156 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  57. Chen X, Chen Y, Li Q, Ma D, Shen B, Peng C. Radiofrequency ablation versus surgical resection for intrahepatic hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence: a meta-analysis. J Surg Res 2015;195(1):166-174 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  58. Facciorusso A, Abd El Aziz MA, Tartaglia N, Ramai D, Mohan BP, Cotsoglou C, et al. Microwave Ablation Versus Radiofrequency Ablation for Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Cancers (Basel) 2020;12(12):3796 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  59. Na SK, Choi GH, Lee HC, Shin YM, An J, Lee D, et al. The effectiveness of transarterial chemoembolization in recurrent hepatocellular-cholangiocarcinoma after resection. PLoS One 2018;13(6):e0198138 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  60. Zu QQ, Liu S, Zhou CG, Yang ZQ, Xia JG, Zhao LB, et al. Chemoembolization of recurrent hepatoma after curative resection: prognostic factors. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2015;204(6):1322-1328 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  61. Kim DS, Lim TS, Jeon MY, Kim BK, Park JY, Kim DY, et al. Transarterial Chemoembolization in Treatment-Naïve and Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Propensity-Matched Outcome Analysis. Dig Dis Sci 2019;64(12):3660-3668 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  62. Koh PS, Chan AC, Cheung TT, Chok KS, Dai WC, Poon RT, et al. Efficacy of radiofrequency ablation compared with transarterial chemoembolization for the treatment of recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma: a comparative survival analysis. HPB (Oxford) 2016;18(1):72-78 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  63. Shim JH, Kim KM, Lee YJ, Ko GY, Yoon HK, Sung KB, et al. Complete necrosis after transarterial chemoembolization could predict prolonged survival in patients with recurrent intrahepatic hepatocellular carcinoma after curative resection. Ann Surg Oncol 2010;17(3):869-877 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  64. Granito A, Facciorusso A, Sacco R, Bartalena L, Mosconi C, Cea UV, et al. TRANS-TACE: Prognostic Role of the Transient Hypertransaminasemia after Conventional Chemoembolization for Hepatocellular Carcinoma. J Pers Med 2021;11(10):1041 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  65. Liu Y, Ren Y, Ge S, Xiong B, Zhou G, Feng G, et al. Transarterial Chemoembolization in Treatment-Naïve and Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Propensity-Matched Outcome and Risk Signature Analysis. Front Oncol 2021;11:662408 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  66. Kim HS, Yi NJ, Kim JM, Joh JW, Lee KW, Suh KS. Clinical impact of the treatment modality on small, solitary, recurrent intrahepatic hepatocellular carcinomas after primary liver resection. Ann Surg Treat Res 2021;101(2):85-92 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  67. Midorikawa Y, Takayama T, Moriguchi M, Yagi R, Yamagishi S, Nakayama H, et al. Liver Resection Versus Embolization for Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma. World J Surg 2020;44(1):232-240 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  68. Yamagami T, Yoshimatsu R, Ishikawa M, Kajiwara K, Aikata H, Tashiro H, et al. Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization with an interventional-CT system for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after living donor liver transplantation. Hepatogastroenterology 2014;61(133):1387-1392 PubMed/NCBI
  69. Hur S, Shin JH, Lee IJ, Min SK, Min SI, Ahn S, et al. Early Experience in the Management of Postoperative Lymphatic Leakage Using Lipiodol Lymphangiography and Adjunctive Glue Embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2016;27(8):1177-1186.e1 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  70. Guo Y, Ren Y, Chen L, Sun T, Zhang W, Sun B, et al. Transarterial chemoembolization combined with camrelizumab for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. BMC Cancer 2022;22(1):270 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  71. Niu L, Liu L, Yang S, Ren J, Lai PBS, Chen GG. New insights into sorafenib resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma: Responsible mechanisms and promising strategies. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2017;1868(2):564-570 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  72. Zhu YJ, Zheng B, Wang HY, Chen L. New knowledge of the mechanisms of sorafenib resistance in liver cancer. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2017;38(5):614-622 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  73. Tian S, Quan H, Xie C, Guo H, Lü F, Xu Y, et al. YN968D1 is a novel and selective inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 tyrosine kinase with potent activity in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Sci 2011;102(7):1374-1380 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  74. Gu H, Li J, You N, Wu K, Wang Z, Wang L, et al. Efficacy and safety of apatinib combined with transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) in treating patients with recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Transl Med 2020;8(24):1677 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  75. Peng ZW, Zhang YJ, Chen MS, Xu L, Liang HH, Lin XJ, et al. Radiofrequency ablation with or without transcatheter arterial chemoembolization in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 2013;31(4):426-432 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  76. Peng ZW, Zhang YJ, Liang HH, Lin XJ, Guo RP, Chen MS. Recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma treated with sequential transcatheter arterial chemoembolization and RF ablation versus RF ablation alone: a prospective randomized trial. Radiology 2012;262(2):689-700 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  77. Groeschl RT, Pilgrim CH, Hanna EM, Simo KA, Swan RZ, Sindram D, et al. Microwave ablation for hepatic malignancies: a multiinstitutional analysis. Ann Surg 2014;259(6):1195-1200 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  78. Lee SK, Chung DJ, Cho SH. A Real-World Comparative Study of Microwave and Radiofrequency Ablation in Treatment-Naïve and Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma. J Clin Med 2022;11(2):302 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  79. Shibata T, Iimuro Y, Yamamoto Y, Maetani Y, Ametani F, Itoh K, et al. Small hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of radio-frequency ablation and percutaneous microwave coagulation therapy. Radiology 2002;223(2):331-337 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  80. Lu MD, Xu HX, Xie XY, Yin XY, Chen JW, Kuang M, et al. Percutaneous microwave and radiofrequency ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective comparative study. J Gastroenterol 2005;40(11):1054-1060 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  81. Swan RZ, Sindram D, Martinie JB, Iannitti DA. Operative microwave ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma: complications, recurrence, and long-term outcomes. J Gastrointest Surg 2013;17(4):719-729 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  82. Groeschl RT, Wong RK, Quebbeman EJ, Tsai S, Turaga KK, Pappas SG, et al. Recurrence after microwave ablation of liver malignancies: a single institution experience. HPB (Oxford) 2013;15(5):365-371 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  83. Takami Y, Ryu T, Wada Y, Saitsu H. Evaluation of intraoperative microwave coagulo-necrotic therapy (MCN) for hepatocellular carcinoma: a single center experience of 719 consecutive cases. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2013;20(3):332-341 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  84. Ryu T, Takami Y, Wada Y, Tateishi M, Matsushima H, Yoshitomi M, et al. Effect of achieving sustained virological response before hepatitis C virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma occurrence on survival and recurrence after curative surgical microwave ablation. Hepatol Int 2018;12(2):149-157 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  85. Ryu T, Takami Y, Wada Y, Tateishi M, Matsushima H, Mikagi K, et al. Double- and triple-positive tumor markers predict early recurrence and poor survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma within the milan criteria and Child-Pugh class A. J Gastrointest Surg 2017;21(6):957-966 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  86. Ji J, Yang W, Shi HB, Liu S, Zhou WZ. Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization alone versus combined with microwave ablation for recurrent small hepatocellular carcinoma after resection: a retrospective comparative study. BMC Gastroenterol 2022;22(1):321 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  87. Chen QF, Jia ZY, Yang ZQ, Fan WL, Shi HB. Transarterial chemoembolization monotherapy versus combined transarterial chemoembolization-microwave ablation therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma tumors ≤5 cm: a propensity analysis at a single center. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2017;40(11):1748-1755 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  88. Kim W, Cho SK, Shin SW, Hyun D, Lee MW, Rhim H. Combination therapy of transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) and radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for small hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison with TACE or RFA monotherapy. Abdom Radiol (NY) 2019;44(6):2283-2292 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  89. Cheung TT, Fan ST, Chan SC, Chok KS, Chu FS, Jenkins CR, et al. High-intensity focused ultrasound ablation: an effective bridging therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma patients. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19(20):3083-3089 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  90. Kennedy JE, Wu F, ter Haar GR, Gleeson FV, Phillips RR, Middleton MR, et al. High-intensity focused ultrasound for the treatment of liver tumours. Ultrasonics 2004;42(1-9):931-935 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  91. Wu F, Wang ZB, Chen WZ, Wang W, Gui Y, Zhang M, et al. Extracorporeal high intensity focused ultrasound ablation in the treatment of 1038 patients with solid carcinomas in China: an overview. Ultrason Sonochem 2004;11(3-4):149-154 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  92. Ng KK, Poon RT, Chan SC, Chok KS, Cheung TT, Tung H, et al. High-intensity focused ultrasound for hepatocellular carcinoma: a single-center experience. Ann Surg 2011;253(5):981-987 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  93. Cheung TT, Chu FS, Jenkins CR, Tsang DS, Chok KS, Chan AC, et al. Tolerance of high-intensity focused ultrasound ablation in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Surg 2012;36(10):2420-2427 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  94. Chan AC, Cheung TT, Fan ST, Chok KS, Chan SC, Poon RT, et al. Survival analysis of high-intensity focused ultrasound therapy versus radiofrequency ablation in the treatment of recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Surg 2013;257(4):686-692 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  95. Leslie T, Ritchie R, Illing R, Ter Haar G, Phillips R, Middleton M, et al. High-intensity focused ultrasound treatment of liver tumours: post-treatment MRI correlates well with intra-operative estimates of treatment volume. Br J Radiol 2012;85(1018):1363-1370 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  96. Cheung TT, Fan ST, Chu FS, Jenkins CR, Chok KS, Tsang SH, et al. Survival analysis of high-intensity focused ultrasound ablation in patients with small hepatocellular carcinoma. HPB (Oxford) 2013;15(8):567-573 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  97. Nakamura Y, Taniguchi H, Ikeda M, Bando H, Kato K, Morizane C, et al. Clinical utility of circulating tumor DNA sequencing in advanced gastrointestinal cancer: SCRUM-Japan GI-SCREEN and GOZILA studies. Nat Med 2020;26(12):1859-1864 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  98. Marrero JA, Kulik LM, Sirlin CB, Zhu AX, Finn RS, Abecassis MM, et al. Diagnosis, staging, and management of hepatocellular carcinoma: 2018 practice guidance by the American Association for the study of liver diseases. Hepatology 2018;68(2):723-750 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  99. Shen PC, Chang WC, Lo CH, Yang JF, Lee MS, Dai YH, et al. Comparison of stereotactic body radiation therapy and transarterial chemoembolization for unresectable medium-sized hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2019;105(2):307-318 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  100. Kim N, Kim HJ, Won JY, Kim DY, Han KH, Jung I, et al. Retrospective analysis of stereotactic body radiation therapy efficacy over radiofrequency ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Radiother Oncol 2019;131:81-87 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  101. Kimura T, Takeda A, Tsurugai Y, Kawano R, Doi Y, Oku Y, et al. A multi-institutional retrospective study of repeated stereotactic body radiation therapy for intrahepatic recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2020;108(5):1265-1275 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  102. Honda Y, Kimura T, Aikata H, Kobayashi T, Fukuhara T, Masaki K, et al. Stereotactic body radiation therapy combined with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for small hepatocellular carcinoma. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;28(3):530-536 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  103. Brade AM, Ng S, Brierley J, Kim J, Dinniwell R, Ringash J, et al. Phase 1 Trial of sorafenib and stereotactic body radiation therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2016;94(3):580-587 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  104. Kang JK, Kim MS, Cho CK, Yang KM, Yoo HJ, Kim JH, et al. Stereotactic body radiation therapy for inoperable hepatocellular carcinoma as a local salvage treatment after incomplete transarterial chemoembolization. Cancer 2012;118(21):5424-5431 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  105. Sebastian NT, Miller ED, Yang X, Diaz DA, Tan Y, Dowell J, et al. A pilot trial evaluating stereotactic body radiation therapy to induce hyperemia in combination with transarterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2020;108(5):1276-1283 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  106. Kibe Y, Takeda A, Tsurugai Y, Eriguchi T. Local control by salvage stereotactic body radiotherapy for recurrent/residual hepatocellular carcinoma after other local therapies. Acta Oncol 2020;59(8):888-894 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  107. Rim CH, Seong J. Application of radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma in current clinical practice guidelines. Radiat Oncol J 2016;34(3):160-167 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  108. Reig M, Forner A, Rimola J, Ferrer-Fàbrega J, Burrel M, Garcia-Criado Á, et al. BCLC strategy for prognosis prediction and treatment recommendation: The 2022 update. J Hepatol 2022;76(3):681-693 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  109. Hallemeier CL, Apisarnthanarax S, Dawson LA. BCLC 2022 update: Important advances, but missing external beam radiotherapy. J Hepatol 2022;76(5):1237-1239 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  110. Apisarnthanarax S, Barry A, Cao M, Czito B, DeMatteo R, Drinane M, et al. External beam radiation therapy for primary liver cancers: An ASTRO clinical practice guideline. Pract Radiat Oncol 2022;12(1):28-51 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  111. Mathew AS, Dawson LA. Current understanding of ablative radiation therapy in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatocell Carcinoma 2021;8:575-586 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  112. Masthoff M, Schindler P, Harders F, Heindel W, Wilms C, Schmidt HH, et al. Repeated radioembolization in advanced liver cancer. Ann Transl Med 2020;8(17):1055 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  113. Wasan HS, Gibbs P, Sharma NK, Taieb J, Heinemann V, Ricke J, et al. First-line selective internal radiotherapy plus chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone in patients with liver metastases from colorectal cancer (FOXFIRE, SIRFLOX, and FOXFIRE-Global): a combined analysis of three multicentre, randomised, phase 3 trials. Lancet Oncol 2017;18(9):1159-1171 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  114. Ricke J, Klümpen HJ, Amthauer H, Bargellini I, Bartenstein P, de Toni EN, et al. Impact of combined selective internal radiation therapy and sorafenib on survival in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2019;71(6):1164-1174 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  115. Salem R, Gabr A, Riaz A, Mora R, Ali R, Abecassis M, et al. Institutional decision to adopt Y90 as primary treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma informed by a 1,000-patient 15-year experience. Hepatology 2018;68(4):1429-1440 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  116. Gibbs P, Heinemann V, Sharma NK, Taieb J, Ricke J, Peeters M, et al. Effect of primary tumor side on survival outcomes in untreated patients with metastatic colorectal cancer when selective internal radiation therapy is added to chemotherapy: combined analysis of two randomized controlled studies. Clin Colorectal Cancer 2018;17(4):e617-e629 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  117. Gao R, Gabr A, Mouli S, Riaz A, Kulik L, Lewandowski RJ, et al. Toxicity and survival of hepatocellular carcinoma patients with hepatitis B infection treated with yttrium-90 radioembolization: an updated 15-year study. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2020;31(3):401-408.e1 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  118. Fidelman N, Kerlan RK. Transarterial chemoembolization and (90)Y radioembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma: review of current applications beyond intermediate-stage disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2015;205(4):742-752 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  119. Parikh ND, Waljee AK, Singal AG. Downstaging hepatocellular carcinoma: A systematic review and pooled analysis. Liver Transpl 2015;21(9):1142-1152 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  120. Di Federico A, Rizzo A, Carloni R, De Giglio A, Bruno R, Ricci D, et al. Atezolizumab-bevacizumab plus Y-90 TARE for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: preclinical rationale and ongoing clinical trials. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2022;31(4):361-369 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  121. Kudo M, Finn RS, Qin S, Han KH, Ikeda K, Piscaglia F, et al. Lenvatinib versus sorafenib in first-line treatment of patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomised phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2018;391(10126):1163-1173 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  122. Finn RS, Qin S, Ikeda M, Galle PR, Ducreux M, Kim TY, et al. Atezolizumab plus bevacizumab in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2020;382(20):1894-1905 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  123. Zhu AX, Kang YK, Yen CJ, Finn RS, Galle PR, Llovet JM, et al. Ramucirumab after sorafenib in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma and increased α-fetoprotein concentrations (REACH-2): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 2019;20(2):282-296 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  124. Bruix J, Qin S, Merle P, Granito A, Huang YH, Bodoky G, et al. Regorafenib for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma who progressed on sorafenib treatment (RESORCE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2017;389(10064):56-66 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  125. Sposito C, Mariani L, Germini A, Flores Reyes M, Bongini M, Grossi G, et al. Comparative efficacy of sorafenib versus best supportive care in recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation: a case-control study. J Hepatol 2013;59(1):59-66 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  126. de’Angelis N, Landi F, Carra MC, Azoulay D. Managements of recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation: A systematic review. World J Gastroenterol 2015;21(39):11185-11198 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  127. Mancuso A, Mazzola A, Cabibbo G, Perricone G, Enea M, Galvano A, et al. Survival of patients treated with sorafenib for hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dig Liver Dis 2015;47(4):324-330 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  128. Liang W, Wang D, Ling X, Kao AA, Kong Y, Shang Y, et al. Sirolimus-based immunosuppression in liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Liver Transpl 2012;18(1):62-69 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  129. Toso C, Merani S, Bigam DL, Shapiro AM, Kneteman NM. Sirolimus-based immunosuppression is associated with increased survival after liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2010;51(4):1237-1243 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  130. Matter MS, Decaens T, Andersen JB, Thorgeirsson SS. Targeting the mTOR pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma: current state and future trends. J Hepatol 2014;60(4):855-865 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  131. Mancuso A, Mazzarelli C, Perricone G, Zavaglia C. Sorafenib efficacy for treatment of HCC recurrence after liver transplantation is an open issue. J Hepatol 2014;60(3):681 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  132. Bruix J, Gores GJ, Mazzaferro V. Hepatocellular carcinoma: clinical frontiers and perspectives. Gut 2014;63(5):844-855 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  133. European Association For The Study Of The Liver, European Organisation For Research And Treatment Of Cancer. EASL-EORTC clinical practice guidelines: management of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2012;56(4):908-943 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  134. Weinmann A, Niederle IM, Koch S, Hoppe-Lotichius M, Heise M, Düber C, et al. Sorafenib for recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Dig Liver Dis 2012;44(5):432-437 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  135. Waghray A, Balci B, El-Gazzaz G, Kim R, Pelley R, Narayanan Menon KV, et al. Safety and efficacy of sorafenib for the treatment of recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Clin Transplant 2013;27(4):555-561 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  136. Takahara T, Nitta H, Hasegawa Y, Itou N, Takahashi M, Wakabayashi G. Using sorafenib for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation—interactions between calcineurin inhibitor: two case reports. Transplant Proc 2011;43(7):2800-2805 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  137. Kim R, Aucejo F. Radiologic complete response with sirolimus and sorafenib in a hepatocellular carcinoma patient who relapsed after orthotopic liver transplantation. J Gastrointest Cancer 2011;42(1):50-53 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  138. Geissler EK, Schnitzbauer AA, Zülke C, Lamby PE, Proneth A, Duvoux C, et al. Sirolimus use in liver transplant recipients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized, multicenter, open-label phase 3 trial. Transplantation 2016;100(1):116-125 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  139. Takayama T, Sekine T, Makuuchi M, Yamasaki S, Kosuge T, Yamamoto J, et al. Adoptive immunotherapy to lower postsurgical recurrence rates of hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomised trial. Lancet 2000;356(9232):802-807 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  140. Lee JH, Lee JH, Lim YS, Yeon JE, Song TJ, Yu SJ, et al. Adjuvant immunotherapy with autologous cytokine-induced killer cells for hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2015;148(7):1383-91.e6 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  141. Peng BG, Liang LJ, He Q, Kuang M, Lia JM, Lu MD, et al. Tumor vaccine against recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2005;11(5):700-704 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  142. Kuang M, Peng BG, Lu MD, Liang LJ, Huang JF, He Q, et al. Phase II randomized trial of autologous formalin-fixed tumor vaccine for postsurgical recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 2004;10(5):1574-1579 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  143. Gabrielson A, Wu Y, Wang H, Jiang J, Kallakury B, Gatalica Z, et al. Intratumoral CD3 and CD8 t-cell densities associated with relapse-free survival in HCC. Cancer Immunol Res 2016;4(5):419-430 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  144. Fu J, Zhang Z, Zhou L, Qi Z, Xing S, Lv J, et al. Impairment of CD4+ cytotoxic T cells predicts poor survival and high recurrence rates in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2013;58(1):139-149 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  145. Alamo JM, Barrera L, Casado MD, Bernal C, Marin LM, Suarez G, et al. Efficacy, tolerance, and safety of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors as rescue immunosuppressants in liver transplantation. Transplant Proc 2009;41(6):2181-2183 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  146. Valdivieso A, Bustamante J, Gastaca M, Uriarte JG, Ventoso A, Ruiz P, et al. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation. Transplant Proc 2010;42(2):660-662 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  147. Rizzo A, Cusmai A, Gadaleta-Caldarola G, Palmiotti G. Which role for predictors of response to immune checkpoint inhibitors in hepatocellular carcinoma?. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022;16(4):333-339 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  148. Park R, Eshrat F, Al-Jumayli M, Saeed A, Saeed A. Immuno-oncotherapeutic approaches in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Vaccines (Basel) 2020;8(3):447 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  149. Viscardi G, Tralongo AC, Massari F, Lambertini M, Mollica V, Rizzo A, et al. Comparative assessment of early mortality risk upon immune checkpoint inhibitors alone or in combination with other agents across solid malignancies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer 2022;177:175-185 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  150. Zheng Y, Wang T, Tu X, Huang Y, Zhang H, Tan D, et al. Gut microbiome affects the response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Immunother Cancer 2019;7(1):193 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  151. Yuan M, Wang Y, Sun Q, Liu S, Xian S, Dai F, et al. Identification of a nine immune-related lncrna signature as a novel diagnostic biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma. Biomed Res Int 2021;2021:9798231 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  152. Zhang Y, Zhang L, Xu Y, Wu X, Zhou Y, Mo J. Immune-related long noncoding RNA signature for predicting survival and immune checkpoint blockade in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cell Physiol 2020;235(12):9304-9316 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  153. Peng L, Chen Z, Chen Y, Wang X, Tang N. MIR155HG is a prognostic biomarker and associated with immune infiltration and immune checkpoint molecules expression in multiple cancers. Cancer Med 2019;8(17):7161-7173 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  154. Zhang X, Li C, Wen T, Peng W, Yan L, Yang J. Treatment for intrahepatic recurrence after curative resection of hepatocellular carcinoma: Salvage liver transplantation or re-resection/radiofrequency ablation? A Retrospective Cohort Study. Int J Surg 2017;46:178-185 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  155. Na GH, Hong TH, You YK, Kim DG. Clinical analysis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after living-donor liver transplantation. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22(25):5790-5799 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  156. Invernizzi F, Iavarone M, Zavaglia C, Mazza S, Maggi U, Cesarini L, et al. Experience with early sorafenib treatment with mTOR inhibitors in hepatocellular carcinoma recurring after liver transplantation. Transplantation 2020;104(3):568-574 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  157. Yoon DH, Ryoo BY, Ryu MH, Lee SG, Hwang S, Suh DJ, et al. Sorafenib for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2010;40(8):768-773 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  158. Fukuda H, Numata K, Moriya S, Shimoyama Y, Ishii T, Nozaki A, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: concomitant sorafenib promotes necrosis after radiofrequency ablation—propensity score matching analysis. Radiology 2014;272(2):598-604 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  159. Feng X, Xu R, Du X, Dou K, Qin X, Xu J, et al. Combination therapy with sorafenib and radiofrequency ablation for BCLC Stage 0-B1 hepatocellular carcinoma: a multicenter retrospective cohort study. Am J Gastroenterol 2014;109(12):1891-1899 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  160. Jin M, Yu Q, Liu Y, Xu W, Fu X, Ji B. Safety and efficacy of physical thermal ablation combined sorafenib for hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2021;9(2):149-159 View Article PubMed/NCBI
  161. Wang X, Liu G, Chen S, Bi H, Xia F, Feng K, et al. Combination therapy with PD-1 blockade and radiofrequency ablation for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma: a propensity score matching analysis. Int J Hyperthermia 2021;38(1):1519-1528 View Article PubMed/NCBI
Copyright © 2023 Authors. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 License (CC BY-NC 4.0), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
  • Gene Expression
  • eISSN 1555-3884

Article Options

Metrics

Cite this Article

  • © 2024 Xia & He Publishing Inc.
  • Total visits : 2639156
  • Visits today : 1162
Back to Top

Non-surgical Treatment Options in Managing Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Walaa Abdelhamed, Mohamed El-Kassas
  • Reset Zoom
  • Download TIFF