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  • Review Article
  • OPEN ACCESS

Herbal Medicine for the Mind: Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants for Memory Loss from the Indian Subcontinent

  • Fawad Alam-Siddiqui1,
  • Ayesha Ghayur1,
  • Zaheer Ul-Haq2 and
  • Muhammad Nabeel Ghayur1,* 
 Author information 

Abstract

Memory loss is a symptom of several neurological disorders, including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It can significantly impact individuals, their loved ones, and society as a whole. Current pharmaceutical interventions have shown some improvement in individuals’ quality of life, but more needs to be done to reduce the burden of memory loss and AD. This paper investigates herbal remedies for memory loss, with a particular focus on the mechanisms underlying their effects. By consulting several South Asian printed books, numerous traditionally used medicinal plants with memory-enhancing properties were identified. A review of published studies showed that many of these plants have reported properties related to memory enhancement and the treatment of AD. Some of the relevant mechanistic actions reported for these plants include acetylcholinesterase inhibition, anti-inflammatory activity, antioxidant effects, and neuroprotective properties. There is also evidence that some plants exhibit a combination of different mechanisms, making them especially promising as therapeutic agents for memory loss. Our review shows the existence and potential of medicinal plants in addressing memory loss. Additionally, some reports provide a scientific basis for the use of these plants in conditions characterized by memory decline, such as AD. This study underscores the importance of further research to evaluate the efficacy of traditionally used medicinal plants in the management of memory loss.

Keywords

Acetylcholinesterase, Alzheimer’s disease, Herbs, Memory, Plants, South Asia, Traditional medicines

Introduction

Human life expectancy has been steadily increasing.1 With this rise in lifespan, the prevalence of chronic illnesses has also grown.2,3 Chronic diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), dementia, diabetes, cancer, and heart disease are now more common than ever before.4,5 The prevalence of these conditions is expected to continue increasing over the next decade.6 Neurocognitive disorders such as AD and dementia are projected to affect 152 million people worldwide by 2050.7 These disorders are characterized by cognitive decline and memory loss. They impact not only the patients but also their loved ones and society at large.8 Numerous mechanisms can contribute to neurocognitive and memory disorders, including chronic inflammation,9 oxidative stress,10 and vascular insufficiency,11 all of which can lead to neuronal cell death.12 While certain pharmacological treatments exist for these disorders,13 they are often limited by issues of affordability, accessibility, efficacy, and tolerability.14 Consequently, there is a growing interest in holistic and herbal alternatives that may offer comparable efficacy to pharmaceuticals, while potentially reducing costs and adverse effects.15

Traditional herbal medicine has long been a mainstay of treatment throughout human history, especially in Asia and the Indian Subcontinent.16,17 Recently, traditional medicine practices have gained popularity in other parts of the world, especially among individuals seeking alternatives to conventional pharmaceuticals.18 This paper sought to identify plants traditionally used in the Indian Subcontinent to manage memory impairment and to evaluate whether any of these plants have been experimentally studied for this purpose. Memory loss is a symptom seen in several different conditions, including dementia. Common symptoms of dementia include memory loss as well as problems with judgment, language, and reasoning. Dementia itself can result from a variety of underlying conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, Lewy body dementia, and vascular dementia.

The first phase of this study involved surveying South Asian medicinal plant books to identify as many plants as possible believed to have beneficial effects on memory loss. Several local books and sources were consulted.19–34

The second phase of the study involved a literature search using databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar to determine whether any of the identified plants have been scientifically shown to possess memory-enhancing properties. Given the various pathways and mechanisms contributing to memory loss, additional reported properties—such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective effects, and impacts on cerebral blood flow—were also recorded.35

Memory-enhancing medicinal plants

A total of 13 traditionally used plants from local South Asian texts were identified as having memory-enhancing properties (Table 1).20,23-25,27,33 As stated, all these texts are local books from South Asia (India and Pakistan). The terms we searched for in the plant descriptions within these books were “memory” and “forgetfulness.” This led to the identification of these plants, which are traditionally known in local customs as those that can help individuals with memory issues. Table 1 also shows the plant families they belong to, their local names (usually in Hindi or Urdu), their English names, and the parts of the plants used for this specific memory-enhancing effect. The books did not provide further details on the manner of use or any mechanisms behind these plants’ effects. These books are not research- or science-based but instead present a collection of information based on folk knowledge and culture. The only information provided was the indication that the plants listed in Table 1 have traditionally been used to benefit people with memory loss. These plants belong to different plant families, although two of them are members of the Umbelliferae family (Fig. 1). Several studies have shown that plants from this family have beneficial effects on memory.36–38 The most commonly used parts of these plants for this benefit are the leaves and roots (Fig. 2). After reviewing the published studies, we found that the roots and leaves of many different plants have been scientifically proven to be effective against memory loss.39,40

Table 1

List of plants traditionally used for their memory-enhancing effects in South Asia

Botanical nameFamilyLocal name (Hindi)English namePart usedReferences
Acacia niloticaMimosoideaeBabul, kikarGum Arabic treeGum27
Acorus calamusAracaceaeWaj, bachSweetflagRoots33
Anacardium occidentaleAnacardiaceaeKaju, kajaCashew nutNuts33
Boswellia glabraBurceraceaeKundar, Salai lobanIndian olibanumGum, resin33
Celastrus paniculatusCelastraceaeMalakanguniStaff treeSeed, leaf, oil23
Centaurea behenCompositaeSafed bahmanBehen, centaureaRoots33
Coriandrum sativumUmbelliferaeDhaniaCorianderFruit, leaf23
Evolvulus alsinoidesConvulvulaceaeShankapushpiDwarf morning-gloryWhole herb23,24
Hydrocotyle asiaticaUmbelliferaeKhulakudiIndian pennywortWhole plant, leaf23
Panax ginsengAraliaceaeJenseng, tapmariGinsengRoots, tea of leaf33
Salvia officinalisLabiateaSalbia sefakussCommon sage, garden sageLeaves (dried)20
Withania somniferaSolanaceaeAsgandh, ashvagandhaWinter cherry, withaniaRoots33
Zingiber officinaleZingiberaceaeAdrak, zinjibeel, sonthGingerRhizomes25,33

The search was performed using several South Asian books.

Graph showing the different plant families represented by the memory-enhancing plants.
Fig. 1  Graph showing the different plant families represented by the memory-enhancing plants.
Graph showing the different plant parts traditionally used for enhancing memory from the discussed medicinal plants.
Fig. 2  Graph showing the different plant parts traditionally used for enhancing memory from the discussed medicinal plants.

Scientific evidence to back these plants

The second phase of the study involved investigating whether the plants listed in Table 1 have any scientific evidence supporting their memory-enhancing effects. This was done through a literature review of these plants on databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar. Several plants from Table 1, when searched through these databases, were found to have been reported with evidence supporting their memory-enhancing effects (Table 2).41–126 Of the 13 plants, only Boswellia glabra, Centaurea behen, and Hydrocotyle asiatica were not found to have any published data on this aspect of their pharmacology. While searching the databases, we used the following terms to help find relevant information: memory, dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and cholinesterase (ChE), one of the main mechanisms through which chemicals can benefit memory deficits.

Table 2

Published data related to memory improvement and potential use in Alzheimer’s disease for plants traditionally used for their memory-enhancing effects in South Asia

Plant nameProposed mechanismExperimental modelChemical responsibleReferences
Acacia niloticaAChEi, BuChEi, anti-inflammatoryIn vitro41
AChEiIn vitroHeptacosane, niloticane42,43
Acorus calamusPrevention of mitochondrial damage in hippocampusMice44
AChEiRatsα-Asarone45
Low memory deficit via antioxidant & anti-inflammatory effectRats46
Antioxidant, AChEiRatsα-Asarone47
Antioxidant, ↓ Na-K-ATPaseRats48
AChEiIn vitro49–51
↑ Cholinergic system, antioxidantMice52
Antioxidant, ↓ cell deathIn vitroα-Asarone53
Anacardium occidentaleAntioxidant, anti-inflammatoryRatsTriterpenoid (ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, lupane); polyphenols (catechin, quercetin, kaempferol)54
Prevention of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation & neurobehavioral changesRats55
Antioxidant, effects on Cholinergic & GABAergic systemRats56
AChEiIn vitroAnacardic acid, Phenolic lipids, cardanol, cadol57–62
Celastrus paniculatus↑ Behavioral outcomes, AChEi, ↓ neuroinflammation, ↑ synaptic plasticity, ↑ cognitive functionsRats63
Improved behavior, ↓ oxidative stress, AChEiMice64
Improved behavior, oxidative stressRats65
Improved cognitive functionsRats66
Memory enhancement seen on elevated plus maze and passive avoidance testsMice67
AChEiRat68
Antioxidant, AChE independent effectRat69
NMDAi, antioxidantRat70
AntioxidantRat71
Reversed scopolamine-induced task performance deficitRat72
Involvement of aminergic systemRat73
Aluminum induced neurodegeneration and oxidative stressRat74
Coriandrum sativum↓ Oxidative stress, AChEiZebrafish75
Neuritogenesis and synaptogenesisIn vitro76
Barnes maze test performanceMice77
Oxidative stressRat78
AntioxidantRat78
AChEiMice80
AChEiIn vitroLinalool, γ-terpinene, α-pinene81
↓ Oxidative stress via protecting cell death, ↓ ROS production, preventing cell apoptosis, modulating sirtuin longevityIn vitroLinalool, linalyl acetate, geranyl acetate82
Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, ERK inhibitoryDrosophila83
Evolvulus alsinoidesAntioxidant, AChEiIn vitroTannins, flavonoids, phenols84
Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, AChEi, memory enhancingIn vitro, ratSteroid (stigmasterol, betulinic acid); coumarin (scopoletin); flavonoid (β-carotene, chlorogenic acid)85
↓ Streptozotocin induced cognitive impairment by ↓ oxidative stress, ↑ cholinergic function, ↓ rho kinase expressionRat86
AntioxidantIn vitro87
Prevention against scopolamine induced amnesiaMice88–91
Improvement against radial arm maze task and Barnes maze testRat92
Effect on elevated plus-mazeRat93,94
Panax ginsengImproved memoryHumans95
↓ β-amyloid production via ↑ capacitative Ca2+ entryMiceGinsenoside96
Different memory testsRat97
↑ Neurogenesis and synaptogenesis through the CREB/BDNF signaling pathwayMiceGinsenoside98
↓ Neuroinflammation and inhibits neurotoxicity of Aβ deposition and Tau phosphorylationRatGinsenoside99
AChEiIn vitroHomopanaxynol, homopanaxydol100
Salvia officinalisAChEi, BuChEi, antioxidant, ↓ amyloid-beta AβIn vitro; Nematode (Globodera pallida)101
↓ β-amyloid deposition, ↓ oxidative stress, AChEiRatMethyl carnosate, carnosic acid, carnosol, rosmanol, salvianolic acids102
Improved perceived exertion, working memory, and reaction timeHumans103–107
Modulation of Brain-derived Neurotrophic FactorIn vitrobenzyl 6-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-β-D-glucoside108
Effect on Morris water maze via CaM kinase II protein expressionMice109
AntioxidantRat110
AChEiMice111
Activation of cholinergic systemRat112
Withania somnifera↑ Cognitive function and moodHumans113
Anti-inflammatoryRat114
AntioxidantIn vitro115
Protection from glutamate induced neurotoxicityRat116
Protection from neurotoxicity and neuroinflammationmice117
↑ executive function, attention, short-term/working memoryHumans118
↑ memory and focus, psychological well-being, sleep quality, ↓ stress levels,Humans119
AChEi, BuChEi, Ca2+ antagonistIn vitro, rabbitWithanolides120
Zingiber officinaleMuscarinic agonist, Ca2+ antagonist, BuChEiRodent, in vitro6-Gingerol121
AntioxidantMice122
↓ cognitive deficits via blocking PERK/CHOP-dependent ER stress pathway and apoptosisIn vitroZerumbone123
↓ ethanol-induced cognitive impairment via modulation of expression of NMDA and GABA receptors, ↓ oxidative damageRat124
↑ Memory and behavior post lipopolysaccharide exposureRat6-shogaol125
↓ Oxidative stressRat126

AChEi, acetylcholinesterase inhibition; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; BuChEi, butyrylcholinesterase inhibition; CHOP, CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein; CREB, cAMP response element binding; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; NMDAi, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor inhibition; PERK, protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase; ROS, reactive oxygen species.

Mechanism of action involving acetylcholinesterase inhibition

Table 2 shows all the plants with reported activities on memory enhancement. The table also details the primary mechanisms proposed in those studies for their memory-enhancing effects, the experimental models used, and the potential chemicals in the plants responsible for these activities. For all the plants listed in Table 2, the predominant mechanism proposed for their memory-enhancing effects is the inhibition of ChE enzymes, namely acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). The exact pathogenesis of AD is not clearly defined, but there is a consensus on the role of acetylcholine (ACh) and its excitatory contribution to nerve conduction.127 Conversely, the central hydrolyzing enzyme AChE can break down ACh, leading to a deficit in ACh levels. This is why most clinically used AD drugs (donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine) are AChE inhibitors, which can inhibit the AChE enzyme and increase ACh levels in the brain,128 helping with the memory symptoms of AD. The AChE inhibitory activity of these plants has been investigated using both in vitro and in vivo methods. This points to the abundance of natural chemicals that could contribute to drug discovery in this area via the pathway of AChE inhibition. As all the plants in Table 2 have shown ChE inhibitory activities, there is a need for more advanced studies to investigate these plants and their components further to develop them into clinically useful medications for patients with memory loss due to AD.

Mechanism of action involving N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonism

In addition to AChE inhibitor drugs, memantine is another drug clinically used in AD that works through a separate pathway by blocking NMDA receptors. This receptor plays a key role in the central nervous system, particularly in cases where abnormal NMDA receptor function or expression levels are associated with several neurodegenerative diseases, including AD.129Table 2 shows that several plants have activities reported in modulating NMDA receptor function, specifically plants like Celastrus paniculata, Withania somnifera, and Zingiber officinale. This suggests that plants could also be a valuable source for new NMDA receptor ligands, in addition to ChE ligands.130 Memantine was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration over 20 years ago. More research should be focused on this area, and additional NMDA antagonists need to be approved for use in AD. Plants present a viable option for discovery in this area of interest.

Additional mechanisms for memory enhancement

The studies listed in Table 2 also show that anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms are common among these plants used for memory loss in AD.131 Neuroinflammation is not typically linked to the onset of AD, but it can exacerbate the disease by elevating abnormalities caused by amyloid-beta (Aβ) and tau proteins. When immune cells release inflammatory cytokines, it further triggers the immune system and increases inflammation levels.132 In people with AD, immune cells are often overly active, which leads to an increased buildup of Aβ and tau proteins. This excessive activity can also result in the loss of synapses, damage to the blood-brain barrier, and overall brain degeneration.133 Similarly, there is a risk of imbalance between the production and breakdown of Aβ. This imbalance causes elevated levels of Aβ to accumulate in the brain.134 Aβ can create oxidative stress, which in turn can further increase Aβ production. Neurons are particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress because they have low levels of antioxidants, and their membranes are rich in fatty acids that are easily damaged.135 This highlights the importance of these mechanisms and their relevance in drug discovery for AD research. Much has been published in this regard, as evident from Table 2, and further efforts are needed to bring this to fruition in terms of developing newer AD drugs.

From the findings of this review, it is also evident that some plants exhibit not only one mechanism of action but multiple mechanisms contributing to their efficacy in addressing memory loss in AD. For instance, Acorus calamus, Anacardium occidentale, and Salvia officinalis are reported to have AChE inhibitory, cholinomimetic, and antioxidant properties47,52,54–57,102,112; Celastrus paniculatus has AChE inhibitory, antioxidant, and NMDA antagonist activities69,70; Coriandrum sativum, Evolvulus alsinoides, and Withania somnifera exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and AChE inhibitory effects113–115; while Zingiber officinale exhibits cholinomimetic, antioxidant, BuChE inhibitory, and Ca2+ antagonist activities.121,122 Among the pure compounds, 6-gingerol, a known constituent of ginger rhizome, is recognized for having multiple properties, including Ca2+ antagonist and BuChE inhibitory effects. This suggests that 6-gingerol could potentially target AD from multiple angles, much like the ginger rhizome from which it is isolated.121 The potential of plants and their pure compounds to benefit disease conditions and target different pathways is promising for discovering and designing new therapeutic entities for AD.

Integrative medicine is a healthcare approach that combines conventional medicine with complementary and alternative therapies.136 This collaboration involves the use of traditional therapies, including medicinal plants. As demonstrated in this study, there is a wide range of age-old medicinal plants with potential benefits for memory loss and other cognitive issues. The scientific literature reveals the diverse mechanisms within these plants that support brain health. By merging folk knowledge with contemporary medical science, a more holistic approach can be offered to patients, thereby improving patient care and outcomes in the field of cognitive health.

Data from clinical trials in humans

Human clinical trials are pivotal in the drug discovery process, including for drugs derived from plant sources. While experiments done on animals provide critical starting data on safety, efficacy, and biological effects, human trials confirm these findings and ensure that a drug works safely and effectively in people. Human trials also provide important information regarding dosage, adverse effects, and how the human body processes the drugs. This is especially important because plants contain hundreds of active chemicals, and the response observed in lab animals may not always extrapolate directly to humans. Additionally, genetics and individual response variations among humans make clinical trials necessary to fully understand the biological effects of the drugs and to help with the approval of the drug for widespread human consumption.

With this in mind, we examined the data in Table 2 and observed that three of the plants mentioned have been the subject of human trials: Panax ginseng, Salvia officinalis, and Withania somnifera. For Panax ginseng, the referenced study tested a ginseng extract called ThinkGIN™ to assess its potential for improving memory in older adults with subjective memory impairment.95 A 12-week clinical trial was conducted with 80 participants aged 55 to 75. Half of the participants took ThinkGIN™ daily, while the other half took a placebo. After 12 weeks, the ThinkGIN™ group showed significant improvements in memory and cognitive function compared to the placebo group. Safety tests showed no serious side effects.

Multiple human trials have been performed on Salvia officinalis (sage). One crossover, randomized, double-blind trial with 26 volunteers assessed the effects of sage supplementation two hours before a fatiguing cycling task.103 Results showed that sage improved cognitive functions, including perceived exertion, working memory, and reaction time in the athletes. In another randomized, double-blind trial,104 sage was administered to 94 healthy individuals over a 29-day period. The study consistently showed significant benefits in working memory and accuracy in task outcomes. The study suggested that terpenes and phenolics in the herb were responsible for these benefits. Additionally, a double-blind, randomized pilot study involving 44 healthy human volunteers demonstrated that a combination extract containing sage improved delayed word recall in volunteers under 63 years of age.105 A terpenoid-containing sage extract tested in 36 healthy volunteers showed improved performance on secondary memory and attention tasks, reduced mental fatigue, and increased alertness following oral administration.106 Lastly, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, balanced, five-period crossover study involving 20 healthy older adults showed enhancement in secondary memory performance and improved accuracy in attention tasks.107 The authors identified the ChE inhibitory mechanism of the extract as responsible for these beneficial effects.

Finally, Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) has also been studied in human volunteers. In one randomized, double-blind study,113 59 healthy young human volunteers received an ashwagandha extract. Results showed improvements in multiple parameters of cognitive function, mood, and markers of health and safety. In another double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study,118 13 healthy volunteers were administered an ashwagandha extract. The extract benefited executive function, improved attention, and enhanced short-term/working memory. Finally, a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial examined the effect of a root extract of ashwagandha in 130 healthy adults.119 Over 90 days of testing, the extract not only improved memory and focus, psychological well-being, and sleep quality but also reduced stress levels. The administration of the extract was safe for the volunteers, and no adverse effects were noted.

The results from these human trials demonstrate the effectiveness of these medicinal herbs in improving cognition and memory.

Limitations

This review presents various South Asian medicinal plants traditionally used for memory loss. Although several plants have been identified and shown to have a scientific basis for use in memory loss, there are still a few limitations to this study:

Only a limited number of books were searched for this review article. Additional local books and printed literature might have yielded more plants traditionally used for memory loss.

This review and study could have been further strengthened if an in-person survey of local herbalists and traditional healers had been conducted. This would have provided actual, real-time data about the practical clinical use of medicinal plants by traditional healers in South Asia for patients with memory loss. This could be the next step in this direction.

Talking to actual patients about how they use these plants in real life would have also been more effective. Currently, the books used to reference the use of these plants only describe the plant parts used for medicinal benefit. Conversations with healers and patients would have provided more information on the process of preparing these plants for use in treating memory loss.

This study is just a review of plants traditionally used in South Asia. A broader study involving other cultures and nations would provide a much larger list of plants with this benefit. In the future, such an effort could be undertaken.

This review did not delve deeply into the medicinal chemistry aspect. A detailed exploration of the chemicals in plants with memory-enhancing benefits could provide more insights into drug design and discovery.

Conclusions

The initial effort to identify South Asian plants traditionally used for memory-enhancing effects yielded a list of medicinal plants. Most of these plants have been reported in the literature to have activity in improving memory, particularly memory loss associated with AD. Several mechanisms have been reported, such as AChE inhibition, modulation of NMDA receptors, and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Most of the studies cited tested these plants on animals. Our study highlights the existence of plants and chemicals that can target memory loss through multiple pathways simultaneously, emphasizing the need for more research in this area. Currently, only AChE inhibitors and NMDA receptor antagonists are available for clinical use in memory loss and AD. If extracts or chemicals with the ability to target disease via multiple pathways simultaneously were introduced, it could potentially be a medical breakthrough. There is also a need to gather data from human studies to assess safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics, so that more agents can be made available for clinical use.

Declarations

Acknowledgement

We would like to extend our gratitude to Ms. Melinda C. Robertson, MSLS, MBA, Assistant Library Director for Health Sciences & Medical Librarian at the University of Pikeville, for extensively reviewing the language in this manuscript and making the necessary changes.

Funding

No specific funding was provided for this study.

Conflict of interest

MNG has been an editorial board member of Future Integrative Medicine since February 2023. The authors declare that there is no other conflict of interest.

Authors’ contributions

Conceptualization, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, and writing—review & editing (FAS, AG, ZU, MNG). All authors have made significant contributions to this study and have approved the final manuscript.

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Alam-Siddiqui F, Ghayur A, Ul-Haq Z, Ghayur MN. Herbal Medicine for the Mind: Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants for Memory Loss from the Indian Subcontinent. Future Integr Med. Published online: Apr 23, 2025. doi: 10.14218/FIM.2024.00050.
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Received Revised Accepted Published
October 29, 2024 March 27, 2025 March 31, 2025 April 23, 2025
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.14218/FIM.2024.00050
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Herbal Medicine for the Mind: Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants for Memory Loss from the Indian Subcontinent

Fawad Alam-Siddiqui, Ayesha Ghayur, Zaheer Ul-Haq, Muhammad Nabeel Ghayur
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